A-Level Psychology - PAPER 2 - Approaches in Psychology

the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.

father of psychology

- aim was to examine the structure of the mind

structuralism

introspection

(1) all behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)

(2) if behaviour is determined, this it should be possible to predict how human being would behave in different conditions.

UNRELIABLE - relied on ‘non-observational’ response - not reliable reproduced by other researchers

NOT ACCURATE - lacks validity - we have little knowledge of the processes behind out behaviour.

DESCRIPTION - tells us ‘what’ occurred

EXPLANATION - tells us ‘why’ it occurred

PREDICTION - identify conditions that will cause a behaviour to occur

CHANGE - apply psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour

reliance on OBJECTIVE SYSTEMATIC METHODS means that theories were tested rather than being accepted as true

by concentrating on objectivity we may focus more on controlling the situation rather than looking at how people behave in normal situation (ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)

THE LEARNING APPROACH: behaviourist and SLT

COGNITIVE APPROACH : point of view of our mind

PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: point of view of our unconscious and early childhood experiences

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: point of view of genetics

HUMANISTIC APPROACH: point of view of self-image

psychology should be seen as a science

supported by evidence

objective and controlled observations

psychologists should study OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOURS

no FREE WILL

- ENVIRONMENT determines BEHAVIOUR

when we are BORN our mind is TABULA RASA (blank slate)

little difference in the learning between ANIMALS and HUMANS

study animals generlaise to humans

learning through association

- two stimuli (UCS) + (NS) - repeatedly paired

EVIDENCE

Watson and Rayner

Little Albert

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

systematic desensitization

treat ANXIETY of phobias

DIFFERENT SPECIES, DIFFERENT SURVIVAL NEEDS

Seligman

preparedness

associate if linked with survival

cc isn’t always implemented

internal mental processes should be observed

contribute to how we perceive and have opinions on the world

Bugelski and Alampay

Group A - animals - activate animal schema - last image

- animal related

Group B - human - activate human schema - last image

- human related

one way to study INTERNAL PROCESSES

information processing approach

information flows through cognitive system

comparing minds to computers

how structures affect mental processes

| - Paul Broca = frontal lobe affects speech

fMRI and PET scans

identify activity in specific areas of the brain

USES SCIENTIFIC & OBJECTIVE METHODS

reliable, objective methods

enables biological and cognitive approach to come together

credible basis

USEFUL APPLICATIONS

explain dysfunctional behaviours

successful treatment

COUNTERARGUMENT

too abstract and theoretical

artificial stimuli = not represent everyday experiences

COMPUTER MODELS

different programming between humans and computers

if MONOZYGOTIC twins have a HIGHER concordance rate than DIZYGOTIC twins

concordance rate of MZ twins is not 100%

comparing concordance rates

| - concordance rate = extent that both twins share the same characteristics

GENETIC CODE - 'written' in the DNA

BEHAVIOUR and PHYSICAL STRUCTURE - arising from INTERACTION between their GENOTYPE and ENVIRONMENT

change in INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS over SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS

natural selection

over successive generations - ADVANTAGEOUS BEHAVIOURS - passed on - widespread

characteristics are inherited - compete for resources - those who survive reproduce - offspring have this good traits

metal bar through skull and brain

little intellectual impairment

personality change

damage to frontal lobes

| - this structure is involved in controlling behaviour

WOOLLETT AND MAGUIRE

levels of neurotransmitters affect mood and mood and behaviour

schizophrenia results from an EXCESS of DOPAMINE - causes FIRING RATE to increase - transmits TOO MANY MESSAGES - causes symptoms

too many DOPAMINE RECEPTORS rather than too much dopamine

cause PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION - alerting its activity

CARRE ET AL - Canadian ice hockey team

surge in levels of TESTOSTERONE - home stadium - energised players - defending home territory

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

objective measurement

easily replicated

credibility

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS

development of psychoactive drugs

treat mental illness

gain relief

CANNOT ESTABLISH CAUSE AND EFFECT

never be completely sure that brain activity influences behaviour

DETERMINISM

sees human behaviour as governed by INTERNAL BIOLOGICAL cases

have no control over

explanations of healthy growth of individuals

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

- we have free will - rejects scientific models - psychology should concern itself with SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE

- physiological needs at the bottom | - self-actualisation at the top = PEAK EXPERIENCE

ROGERS - personal growth achieved through congruence - more overlap between SELF-IMAGE and IDEAL-SELF - issues in adulthood stem from childhood due to a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

- each person is best expert of themselves - encourage to find OWN SOLUTIONS - talk as openly as possible - counsellor provides UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

NOT REDUCTIONIST - gain better insight into individual's behaviour - qualitative methods - holistic view - more valid = meaning human behaviour = real life context POSITIVE APPROACH - offers refreshing and optimistic alternative - sees people as free to work towards improving themselves

LIMITED APPLICATIONS - not many real-life application other than the therapy - abstract concepts UNSTABLE CONCEPT - adopts non-scientific approach - difficult to study - lack of empirical evidence to support theories

behaviour is the result of EARLY CHILDHOOD experiences and UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHTS and FEELINGS

Sigmund Freud

conscious mind = tip of the iceberg unconscious mind = larger part behaviour stems from the unconscious part - reveals itself through slips of the tongue

mind actively prevents traumatic memories - repression / denial / displacement

ID / EGO / SUPEREGO

PLEASURE PRINCIPLE - present from birth- immediate gratification

if a person is hungry the id demands that they eat there and then

REALITY PRINCIPLE - mediates between other two personalities

may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands

MORALITY PRINCIPLE - develops around age 4/5 - right or wrong - how we should behave

MOTIVATED FORGETTING - threatening thoughts are pushed out

TRANSFERRING FEELINGS from a TRUE SOURCE onto a TARGET e.g. parent

REFUSING TO BELIEVE the situation is occurring

oral stage

anal stage

phallic stage

latency stage

genital stage

(OAPs Love Gravy)

pleasure in the mouth - sucking / biting

ORAL FIXATION - smoking / biting nails

pleasure in the anus - control of bodily waste

ANALLY RETENTIVE - perfectionist

| ANALLY EXPULSIVE - disorganised

Oedipus and Electra complex - unconscious desire for opposite sex parent - identify with same sex parent

boys fear castration

girls suffer penis envy

PHALLIC PERSONALITY - reckless / possibly homosexual

sexual urges

sexual desires - become conscious alongside onset of puberty

difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

EXPLANATORY POWER

explains wide range of phenomenon

demonstrated influence of childhood on adulthood

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

used in hypnosis bringing unconscious to conscious

could be considered inappropriate

UNSTABLE CONCEPTS

hard to falsify - open to interpretation - very subjective - hard to tests

PSYCHIC DETERMINISM

no behaviour is an accident - driven by unconscious forces

how consequences influence behaviour

something in the environment that STRENGTHENS a behaviour making it more likely to occur

INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be REPEATED - consequence is pleasant

giving child praise for carrying out a good behaviour

INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - removing something unpleasant

giving a crying child sweets to take away the crying

DECREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - consequence is unpleasant

giving a detention for not completing homework

giving something unpleasant e.g. press-ups at badminton

removing something desirable e.g. being grounded

EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

Skinner

cause and effect

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS

token economy programmes

prisons

good behaviour is rewarded

FREE WILL IN HUMANS COMPARED TO ANIMALS

cant relate Skinner's research to humans

however. ..

skinner argued free will is an illusion

MECHANISTIC VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR

animals = passive responders

humans = active responders

learning theory may apply less to humans

we learn indirectly by observing and imitating others

someone who is looked at 'role model'

| - can be live models or symbolic

copying of behaviour

| - determined by characteristics of models, ability to perform and consequences of behaviour

the extent that someone relates to a model

learning by looking at the consequences of a behaviour

cognition involved prior to imitation

| - attention / retention / motor reproduction / motivation

noticing the behaviour

remembering the behaviour

being physically capable / possible

has to be a reason for copying the behaviour