A-Level Psychology - PAPER 3 - Issues and Debates
Universality in psychology refers to the idea that theories and findings should apply to all people, regardless of culture, gender, or background. This concept is threatened by gender or cultural bias, which can lead to conclusions that don't truly reflect human behaviour as a whole.
What is UNIVERSALITY ?
apply to all people
- threatened by the concept of gender bias
Key Terms
What is UNIVERSALITY ?
apply to all people
- threatened by the concept of gender bias
What is BIAS ?
prejudice for or against a person or group
- could be considered unfair
What is ANDROCENTRISM ?
psychology has been male dominated
psychologists were male
theories tended to represent a male world view
theories are unlikely t...
What is ALPHA BIAS ?
assumes there is a difference between genders when there might not be
artificially raises a gender’s status or undervalue a gender
What is BETA BIAS ?
assumes there are no difference between genders when there might be
assuming findings about men can be applied to women when they can’t
What are the STRENGTHS if gender bias ?
EQUALITY
society can become more equal
women have similar education and occupational opportunities
REFLEXIVITY
allowed rese...
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| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
What is UNIVERSALITY ? | apply to all people - threatened by the concept of gender bias |
What is BIAS ? | prejudice for or against a person or group - could be considered unfair |
What is ANDROCENTRISM ? | psychology has been male dominated psychologists were male theories tended to represent a male world view theories are unlikely to be universal |
What is ALPHA BIAS ? | assumes there is a difference between genders when there might not be artificially raises a gender’s status or undervalue a gender |
What is BETA BIAS ? | assumes there are no difference between genders when there might be assuming findings about men can be applied to women when they can’t |
What are the STRENGTHS if gender bias ? | EQUALITY society can become more equal women have similar education and occupational opportunities REFLEXIVITY allowed researchers to become aware of their own interpretations less likely for concrete generalisations |
What is FREE WILL ? | we choose our thoughts and behaviours - influenced by biological and environmental factors |
What is DETERMINISM ? | no free will thoughts are pre-determined by internal / external factors behaviour is predictable |
What is HARD DETERMINISM ? | extreme form no room for free will behaviour has specific cause not responsible for our actions |
What is SOFT DETERMINISM ? | allows some free will some conscious mental control influencing forces freedom to detract |
What is BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM ? | biological factors not able to see or control e. g. neurotransmitters / hormones |
What is ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM ? | determined by past experiences external influences e. g. social learning |
What is PSYCHIC DETERMINISM ? | determined by unconscious forces early childhood e. g. psychosexual stages |
What are the arguments FOR free will ? | FACE VALIDITY everyday life legal system = responsible for their behaviour calm in society PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS high locus of control mentally healthy believing we have free will |
What are the arguments AGAINST free will ? | CULTURALLY RELATIVE suited to individualistic cultures culturally bias ethnocentric RESEARCH EVIDENCE motor area before conscious awareness prefrontal cortex active 10 seconds before pp aware of their decision |
What are the arguments FOR determinism ? | MENTAL ILLNESS behaviours are not desired e.g. suicide medication can remove symptoms INTERVENTIONS intervene to prevent certain behaviours brain activity in murderers provide support |
What are the arguments AGAINST determinism ? | CONCORDANCE RATES biological determinism MZ twins for mental illness never 100% must be more complex than suggested SOCIALLY SENSITIVE criminal behaviour can never be punished focus on medication and ignore influencing factors self-fulfilling prophecy |
What is NATURE ? | the influences of our genes - determined by pre-natal environment |
What is NURTURE ? | the influences of our interactions - we are born as a blank slate |
What are GENETICS ? | heredity - our genetic makeup influences our behaviour |
What is EVOLUTIONARY ? | heredity - characteristics which have supported survival are now innate within us and passed down due to natural selection |
What is the LEARNING THEORY ? | environment - behaviour is learnt via experiences e.g. conditioning |
What is the INTERACTIONIST APPROACH ? | interaction between nature and nurture |
What is DIATHESIS STRESS ? | mental illness occurs due to interaction between the BIOLOGICAL (diathesis) and the ENVIRONMENT (stress) INFLUENCES |
What is a PASSIVE RELATIONSHIP ? | INTERACTIONIST APPROACH | - parental gene affects the way the parent treats their child |
Give an example of a PASSIVE RELATIONSHIP | parents who are good at golf might take their child to a gold course and encourage them to play |
What is a ACTIVE RELATIONSHIP ? | INTERACTIONIST APPROACH | - child's genetic make-up actively affects the environment |
Give an example of an ACTIVE RELATIONSHIP | child has good hand-eye coordination so spends time at the golf course |
What is a REACTIVE RELATIONSHIP ? | INTERACTIONIST APPROACH | - child's genetic make-up leads to particular response from others |
Give an example of a REACTIVE RELATIONSHIP | parent notices good hand-eye coordination and encourages them to play golf |
What are the STRENGTHS of the nature / nurture debate ? | NURTURE CAN AFFECT NATURE macguire - taxi's hippocampus experience changed plasticity NATURE CAN AFFECT NURTURE people create their own environment select what is appropriate for their 'nature' shapes their behaviour and reinforces tendencies EPIGENETICS genes can be switches 'on / off' individual overeats and becomes obese = change in genetic activity = epigenetic marker = passed to offspring |
What is HOLISM ? | focuses on the system as a whole | - cannot predict how the whole system will work by looking at individual components |
What is REDUCTIONISM ? | breaks down complex phenomena into more simple components | - better understood at a simpler level |
What are the 3 levels of explanation in psychology - according to reductionism ? | highest level middle level lowest level |
What is the HIGHEST LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ? | REDUCTIONISM social and cultural explanations of behaviour broad / social |
Give an example of the HIGHEST LEVEL when concerning MEMORY | CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS can affect what we remember |
What is the MIDDLE LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ? | REDUCTIONISM psychological explanation of behaviour focuses on individual |
Give an example of the MIDDLE LEVEL when concerning MEMORY | episodic memory from OUR LIVES are remembered because they are personal |
What is the LOWEST LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ? | REDUCTIONISM biological explanation of behaviour internal factors |
Give an example of the LOWEST LEVEL when concerning MEMORY | activity in the AREAS OF THE BRAIN where memories are stored (hippocampus) and the NEUROTRANSMITTERS involved in making memories (acetylecholine) |
What is BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM ? | reduces behaviour down to a PHYSICAL LEVEL | - the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, genetics and hormones |
What is ENVIRONMENTAL (STIMULUS-RESPONSE) REDUCTIONISM ? | behaviour can be reduced to a SIMPLE RELATIONSHIP between BEHAVIOUR and EVENTS in the environment |
Give an example of BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM | depression low levels of serotonin drugs can increase serotonin = reduced depression |
Give an example of ENVIRONMENTAL REDUCTIONISM | phobias | - learnt via an association between an UCS and NS |
What are the arguments FOR reductionism ? | MEASURING VARIABLES focuses on one factor easier to design research and control variables validity / reliability cause and effect PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS interventions SSRI's to treat OCD fewer patients being institutionalised |
What are the arguments AGAINST reductionism ? | MISSES COMPLEXITY OF BEHAVIOUR environmental reductionism researched on animals we are not scaled up versions of animals as we are affected by SOCIAL FACTORS and EMOTIONS CONTEXT OF BEHAVIOUR meaning of behaviour and potential causes SSRI's are not long term solution time and money wasted |
What are the arguments FOR holism ? | ACCOUNTS FOR SOCIAL INFLUENCES behaviour affected by interactions with others conformity to social roles more accurate understanding of behaviour ACCOUNTS FOR COGNITIVE INFLUENCES schemas in childhood have lead to depression looks at the individual as a whole may be more accurate |
What are the arguments AGAINST holism ? | HARD TO TEST difficult to isolate variables hard to generalise findings lack of evidence for science community HARD TO PRACTICALLY APPLY considers all factors so hard to suggest how to change the behaviour unsure which factor to tackle first |
What is IDIOGRAPHIC ? | focuses on UNIQUE INDIVIDUALS qualitative data not compared to larger group |
Give examples of IDIOGRAPHIC METHODS | case studies unstructured interviews thematic analysis |
What is NOMOTHETIC ? | LARGE NUMBER of people quantitative data generalisations |
Give examples of NOMOTHETIC METHODS | experiments |
What are the arguments FOR idiographic ? | CAN MAKE PREDICTIONS detailed observation of few individuals = generalisations insight into cause and effect HELP DEVELOP NOMOTHETIC APPROACH millon and davis start with nomothetic and then focus on idiographic more accurate |
What are the arguments AGAINST idiographic ? | PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS DIFFICULT does not make comparisons no baseline cannot benefit everyday life LACK OF SCIENTIFIC RIGOUR qual. data = subjective self-reports = social desirability bias |
What are the arguments FOR nomothetic ? | SCIENTIFIC controlled methodology cause and effect high validity scientific credibility PREDICTIONS mental illness time consuming for personal therapies design of drugs |
What are the arguments AGAINST nomothetic ? | DOES NOT TELL US WHY focuses on statistical significance doesn't give full picture HUMANS ARE COMPLEX law / theories won't apple to all people medication only works for 2/3 of patients |
What are ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS ? | IMPACTS the findings may have on SOCIETY |
Give an example of ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS | how the finding may influence our perception of a particular social group |
What is SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH ? | potential social implications e. g. genetic explanations for aggressive behaviour attract media attention |
What are the potential problems of the RESEARCH QUESTION ? | could be damaging to a certain group e.g. 'are there racial differences in IQ?' |
What does the researcher need to consider with their RESEARCH QUESTION ? | IMPLICATIONS wider effect should not suggest discrimination SCIENTIFIC FREEDOM engage in research but not harm pps or social groups |
What does the researcher need to consider with their INTERPRETATIONS and APPLICATIONS of their findings ? | VALIDITY poor methodology = inaccurate findings = false representation of social group PUBLIC POLICY what the research might be used for avoid wrong purpose |
What are some of overcoming ethical issues ? | briefing / debriefing care in publication consider who is funding research treat pps well |
What are the arguments FOR social sensitive research ? | NECESSARY promote greater sensitivity and understanding reduce prejudice PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS potential to make changes in society attachment types positive economic impacts |
What are the arguments AGAINST social sensitive research ? | INADEQUACY OF CURRENT GUIDELINES (currently) do not need to consider how the research will be used needs reconsideration especially with technological advances SOCIAL CONTROL findings may reinforce current stereotypes PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE LIMITATIONS researcher should recognise their own limitations can never state absolute truth should not impose a professional view cannot buffer against ethical implications |