EPPP - I/O Psychology Part 1

Used to obtain info about the nature & requirements of a job; KSAO’s (Knowledge, skills, attitudes, & other characteristics) used to devel. criterion measures & predictors.

Conducted to ID the essential characteristics of a job, & may be 1st step in a job evaluation.

Provides info. to:

facilitates workforce training & planning programs

Assist w/decisions about job redesign

Help ID causes of accidents & other safety related probs.

Info. about a job can be obtaineda few ways including:

Observing EE’s perform the job

Review company records

Interview EE’s. sups. & others familiar w/the job

Having EE’s keep a job diary

Methods include:

Job-oriented techniques: Focus on work activities/tasks & conditions of work.

Worker-oriented techniques: Focus on KSAO’s reqired for the job.

​Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

​A systematic process of determining how a job differs from other jobs in terms of required responsibilities, activities, & skills.

A frequently used structured job analysis questionnaire w/194 questions that provides info on 6 dimensions of worker activity divided into:

info. input

mental processes,

work output,

relationships with other persons,

job context,

Interpersonal activities

​A quantitative worker-oriented method of collectin data for purposes of job analysis.

More helpful for desining training prog. & deriving criterion measures that provide useful EE feedback.

Job evaluation may begin with a job analysis but is conducted for the purpose of setting wages and salaries.

Primary purpose of a(n) Job Evaluation is to obtain detailed info. about job requirements in order to facilitate decisions related to compensation.

ID compensable factors & assigning a dollar values to them, such as:

Skill & ED req.

Consequences of error

Degree of autonomy & responsibility

Establish Comparable Worth

Determine the relative worth of jobs in order to set wages & salaries.

(aka pay equity) Refers to the principle that jobs that require the same education, experience, skills, & other qualifications should pay the same wage/salary regardless of the employee’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, etc.

Measure of job performance used to provide EE’s w/performance feedback & help make decisions about salary increases & bonuses, training needs, promotions & termination.

Types:

Objective (direct) Measures: Include quantitative measures of production & certain types of personnel data (Not avalible for many jobs & may not provide a complete pict. of an EE’s perf.)

Subjective Measures: Rely on judgement of the rater. More useful for eval. complex contributors to job perf. such as motivation, leadership skills & decision making ability.

Absolute measures

​Critical Incidents

Forced Choice

Graphic Rating Scale

BARS

Relative measures

Paired comparison

Forced distribution

In devel. of job perf. measure it is a measure of perf. that is theoretical & can not actually be measured.

A construct that can not be measured directly but instead is measured indirectly.

Ex: Ultimate Criterion = “Effective EE”

Actual Criterion = Dollar amt. of sales in a 3 mo. period

Rely on judgement of the rater. More useful for eval. complex contributors to job perf. such as motivation, leadership skills & decision making ability.

Absolute measures: Subjective perf. assess that indicates a ratee’s perf. in absolute terms. Involve rating an EE w/out considering the perf. of other EE’s & often takes the form of a graphic, likert type scale.

Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

BARS

Relative measures (techniques): Involve comparing EE’s to each other on various aspects of job perf., & help reduce rater biases; less useful than absolute measures for EE feedback. Includes:

​Paired comparison

Forced distribution

Relative measures (techniques): Involve comparing EE’s to each other on various aspects of job perf., & help reduce rater biases; less useful than absolute measures for EE feedback. Includes:

​Paired comparison: The rater compares each EE to every other EE performing the same job. →Disadvantage is that it is time consuming as the number of EE’s increases.

​Forced distribution: The rater categorizes EE’s in terms of pre-defined normal distribution. →Disadvantage is that it produces misleading info when perf. is not actually normally distributed.

4 Types of rater bias that limit validity & relaiability of rating scales:

Leniency Bias: Occurs when a rater consistently assigns high ratings to all ee’s, regardless of how they actually do on the job.

Strictness BIas: Occurs when a rater consistently assigns low ratings to all ee’s, even when they are good workers.

Central Tendency Bias: Occurs when a rater consistently assigns average ratings to all ee’s.

Halo Bias: Occurs when the rater judges all aspects of an ee’s perf. on the basis of a single aspect of perf.

Type of rater bias that occurs when a rater consistently assigns high ratings on each dimension of performance to all employees, regardless of how they actually do on the job.

Can be alleviated by using relative rating scales such as the forced distribution scale that categorizes ee’s in terms of a predefined normal distribution.

Occurs when a rater consistently assigns average ratings to all ee’s.

Occurs when the rater judges all aspects of an ee’s perf. on the basis of a single aspect of perf.

Best way is to provide raters w/adequate training, especially training that helps them observe & distinguish btwn levels of performance such as:

Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)

Frame-of-reference Training

Involves using a checklist of critical incidents (descriptions of successful & unsuccessful job behaviors) to rate each employee’s job performance.

The Supervisor observes EE’s & records behaviors. Then used to provide EE’s w/feedback about perf. or complied into a checklist.

When incorportated into rating scales, can help reduce rater biases.

A graphic rating scale that requires the rater to choose the one behavior for each dimension of job performance that best describes the employee.

Incorporates critical incidents which improves graphic rating scales by using anchor points on the scale w/descriptions of specific behaviors representing poor to excellent perf.

Distinguishing charateristic is that it is devel. as a multi-step process that involves a team of sups, managers & other ppl familiar w/the job.

Advantage*: Involvement of managers/sups. may increase motivation & accuracy when they use the scales

Disadvantage*: Requires substantial time & effort to develop.

A type of rater training that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of job performance & focuses on the ability to distinguish between good & poor work-related behaviors. (Training focues on helping raters become good observers of behavior)

Helps ensure that the raters have the same idea about what constitutes succesful & unsuccesful job perf.

It is useful for eliminating rater biases.

The degree to which an actual criterion does NOT measure all aspects of the ultimate (conceptual) criterion & is one of the factors that limits criterion relevance.

A criterion measure can have high relaiability, but low validity (It can give consistent results but measures only some aspects of the ultimate criterion).

Criterion Deficiency = Low Validity

A bias that occurs when a rater’s knowledge of an Indivs. perf. on a predictor affects how the rater rates him/her on the criterion; criterion measure assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure.

Ex: contamination is occurring when a rater’s knowledge of a ratee‘s performance on a predictor affects how the rater rates the ratee on the criterion. It can artificially inflate the criterion-related validity coefficient.

Conduct a Job Analysis: Determine what knowledge, skills, attitudes & other characterisitics (KSO’s) the job requires. This info. indicates the type of predictors that would be useful & best criterion measures to eval. job perf.

Select/Devel. the Predictor & Criterion Measures

Obtain & correlate Scores on the Predictor & Criterion: Admin. to a similar sample of ppl & correlate the 2 sets of scores on the test w/scores on the criterion to determine a criterion related coefficient.

Check for Adverse Impact: Determine if the predictor unfairly discriminates against members of a legally protected grp.

Evaluate Incremental Validity: Determine if use of the predictor increases decision-making accuracy.

Cross-Validate: Admin. the predictor & criterion to a new sample.

Occurs when use of a selection test or other employment procedure results in substantially higher rejection rates for members of a legally protected (minority) group than for the majority group; adverse impact is said to exist.

The result of dicrimination against indiv. protected by Title VII & related legislation due to the use of an employment practice.

Methods to ID adverse impact:

80% Rule

Differential Validity

Unfairness

The 80% rule can be used to determine if adverse impact is occurring.

EEOC methods define when using this rule, the hiring rate for the majority group is multiplied by 80% to determine the min. hiring rate for the minority group.

Ex: If the hiring rate is 70% for men & 40% for women, then .70 x .80 = .56

This means the min. hiring rate for women is 56% which is less than the actual rate of 40% & indicates the selection test is having an adverse impact on women.

Differential validity exists when the validity coefficient of a predictor is significantly different for one subgroup than for another subgroup (e.g.. lower for African American job applicants than for White applicants) & results in a larger proportion of 1 grp being hired.

Potential cause of Adverse Impact

Method for responding to adverse impact: When it’s due to differential validity, use a diff. predictor that’s equally valid for both grps

Refers to unfair hiring, placement, or related discrimination against a minority grp that occurs when members of the minority group consistently score lower on a predictor but perform approximately the same on the criterion as members of the majority group. (EEOC)

Potential cause of Adverse Impact bc members of the grp obtaining lower predictor scores will be hired less often.

Method for responding to adverse impact: When it’s due to unfairness, use a different predictors cutoff scores for members of different grps.

Incremental validity refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a new predictor.

Selection ratio: the ratio of number of jobs to job applicants.

Base rate: the percent of EE's who are performing satisfactorilly w/out the new predictor.

It is maximized when the predictor‘s validity coefficient is high, the selection ratio is low, and the base rate is moderate.

Moderated base rate w/many applicants & few job openings.

Moderated base rate suggests that there's room for improvment & a new predictor will likely increase decision making accuracy.

The situation is optimal when there are many applicants to choose from (a low selection ratio).

The degree to which a new selection technique will increase decision-making accuracy depends on several factors including:

Base rate* - proportion of correct decisions w/out the new technique &

Selection Ratio* - ratio of applicants to job openings.

Can be used to estimate the percent of new hires that will be successful as EE's given various combos of validity coefficients, selection ratios & base rates are known.

When the selection ratio is low (.10), the base rate moderate (near .50) & a predictor w/a low validity coefficient can improve decision making accuracy.

Multiple Regression: A compensatory method in which good perf. on one predictor can offset poor perf. on another predictor; areas of weakness.

Multiple Cutoff: A non-compensatory method that requires that a min. score on each predictor be obtained before an applicant is considered for selection.

Multiple Hurdles: A non-compensatory method that involves adminstering predictors one at a time in a pre-determined order, w/each predictor being admin. only if the applicant has passed the previous one.

Include:

Cognitive Ability Tests/Gen. Mental Ability Tests

Biographical Information/Biodata

Biographical Information Banks

Interviews

Work Samples

Trainability Tests

Assessment Centers

In-basket Test

Leaderless Group Discussion

Interest Tests

Personality Tests

Big 5 Traits

Considered to be the best predictor of job perf. across different jobs & job settings.

These tests consistently produce the highest validity coefficents increase as the objectivity of the criterion measure increases

Another good predictor of performance, training sucess & especially turnover when Items are empirically derived.

Validity is greatest when items have been found to correlate highly w/job perf.

Biographical Information Banks: Contains multiple choice questions that ask for info. on work Hx, family background, economic Hx & health found to correlate w/job perf. but may not seem relevant to the applicant; lack "face validity".

The most common predictor in an organization but generally have low levels of reliability & validity (.14 to .23).

Validity coefficents are largest when interviews are empirically derived & structured & includes questions that accuratley predict job perf. & same questions asked of all applicants.

More useful when used in conjunction w/a gen. cog. abilities test & other selection techniques.

Require the indiv. (job applicant) to perform a task or operation actually required by the job.

Have good validity but are not avalible for all jobs & can be costly to develop & use

Can be included as part of a realistic job preview.

Trainability Tests: incorporate a structured period of learning & eval. to determine if applicants are likely to benefit from training or prevent unrealistic job expectations & reduce turnover

Used to select, promote, eval. & train applicants & current EE's at the management or administrative level & incorporate a variety of techniques such as:

Interviews

Tests

Situational exercises:

In-basket Test: Requires candidates to respond to memos, reports, & phone calls they are likely to encounter on the job.

Leaderless Group Discussion: Involves assigning a group of candidates a problem or issue to discuss & eval grp training & decision making skills.

A type of management development training that presents 4-8 participants w/probs. they must solve in a specified period of time.

No indiv. is designated as the leader, instead participants are given the opportunity to demonstrate leadership, communication, decision making & interpersonal skills in a relatively unstructured setting.

Use is based on the premise that applicants whose interest profiles resemble those successful EE's will perform best on the job

they are susceptible to faking & are better predictors of job choice, satisfaction & persistence than of job success

Useful as a predictor when they measure traits that have been found to predict job performance

Big 5 Personality Traits

Factor analyses have identified 5 basic personality traits:

Neurotlcism,

Extraversion,

Openness to experience,

Agreeableness, and

Conscientiousness.

Conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings, and criterion measures.

Method of providing accurate info. about the job & the org. to job applicants

Primary goal is to reduce turnover by reducing disillusionment & increasing satisfaction.

Systematic process of determining job perf. requirements & EE's perf. deficits to ID objectives, content & training needs & the format of training programs. Includes 4 components:

Organization analysis - Used to clarify organizational goals & determine if training is needed to meet those goals.

Job Analysis - Conducted to ID what knowledge & skills are needed to perform the job successfully.

Person Analysis - Conducted to determine which EE's would benefit from training & what kind of training they would need.

Demographic Analyses - ID train needs of diff. grps of workers (Ex: young vs. old)

Practicing or studying beyond the point of mastery; associated w/enhanced recall.

(sport psychology) Refers to physical & psychological stress resulting from excessive athletic training.

Training in organizations can be:

On-the-Job Training: Has obvious job relevance & max. transfer-of training.

Cross Training

Job Rotation

Off-the-Job Training: Provides opportunities for supplemental training to practice specific aspects of the job & can tolerate traininf errors & accidents.

Behavioral Modeling

Vestibule Training

(On-the-job Training Technique) Involves training workers to perform different tasks & activities.

Associated w/several benefits such as enchancing morale of EE's by adding variety to their jobs, increased value to org., helps org. save costs by improving flexibiility, & increasing EE interests & motivation.

Eliminate the need to hire temporary workers.

(On-the-job Training Technique) Used to train managers by having them learn the jobs of all EE's they will be supervising.

This method requires the trainee to perform each job for an extended period of time & assumes all the roles & responsibilities required by the jobs.

(Off-the-Job Training Technique) Involves having trainees observe a skilled worker perform the job & practice what they have observed.

(Off-the-Job Training Technique) Makes use of a physical replication or simulation & is useful when on-the-job training would be too costly or dangerous.

Ex: Pilot Training

(York)USed in orgs. to eval. the cost effectivness of training prog. & procedures involved using a mathmatical equation to get and est. of the programs financial return on investment (ROI).

Equation to calc. utility of train prog:

$U = T x N x d x SD - N x C

$U = Utility measured in terms of dollar value

T = # of yrs. duration of training progs. effects on perf.

N = # of ppl. trained

d = Effect size of the training prog.

SD = Standard Deviation of job perf. in dollars

C = Per person cost of training

(T x d x C = Part of formula used to calc. utility)

Formative evaluations are conducted while a training program is being "formed" (developed), & their results are used to make necessary modifications to the program to meet goals.

Summative evaluations is conducted after a program has been implemented in order to assess its impact (outcomes).

Distinguishes btwn 4 levels of criteria to eval./assess. the impact of a training program:

Reaction Criteria: Eval. trainee's satisfaction w/the prog. & contain post-training survey/interview.

Learning Criteria: Assess how much trainees learned from the prog. & contain written exams & compare test scores from before & after the prog.

Behavioral Criteria: The extent to which training improved the trainees on the job perf. (eval. trans-of-training). Obtain info. by watching the trainee perform the job after the prog. for extended periods of time.

Results Criteria: Provides info on the extent to which the prog. contributes to achievement of the orgs. goals. Quality ratings of productivity & services measure cost & turnover reductions, increase in overall productivity & increase profits. →Most important, difficult & time consuming to devel. & analyze; rarely used to eval a train prog.

(Devel. Approach) Proposes the ideal situation is for an indiv. to choose a job that has a good match btwn an indivs. self-concept (indiv. values, beliefs, interests & personality charateristics) & characteristics of the job this leads to greater job satisfaction, stability & success.

Career devel. occurs over the life-span during 5 stages:

Growth (0-14 yrs)

Exploration (14-25 yrs) →Primary Task: Specify, crystalize & implement career choice

Establishment (25-45 yrs) →Primary Task: Stabilization & advancement

Maintenance (45-65 yrs) →Primary Task: Secure occupational position & remain competitive by obtaining training

Disengagement (65+ yrs)

​Career Maturity: The extent to which a person successfully completes the devel. tasks of his/her current life stage.

An indiv. adopts 9 life roles at differemt times during his/her life - e.g. student, spouse & worker that impact self-concept.

The Life Career Rainbow helps the CT think about the impact of thier current & future 5 life stages & 9 roles on career planning

Holland's career theory emphasizes the importance of matching the person's charateristics to the charateristics of the job.

Focuses on the personality/work environment match & distinguishes between 6 personality/environment types that describe the person & job charateristics ("RlASEC"-position of 6 themes depicted by a hexagon & rel. btwn them):

Realistic (machines, comp. network, athletic, work outdoors)

Investigative (science, medicine, math, research)

Artistic (art, self-expression, communication, culture)

Social (ppl, team work, helping, community service)

Enterprising (business, politics, leadership, entreprenuership)

Conventional (organization, data manage, accounting, investing, info.systems)

→ The farther apart the more dissimilar

Differentiation: A personality-environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job outcomes when the indiv. exhibits a high degree of differentiation — i.e., has clear interests as evidenced by a high score on one of Holland's 6 types & low scores on all others.

→An indiv. that obtains the highest score on the realistic & investigative themes will more easily find a satisfying job than a person w/high scores on social & Realistic themes

(Influenced by the work of Erikson/Piaget/Bruner/Allport)

Views career ID devel. as an aspect of ego ID devel. & involves the repetative process of differentiation & integration.

Process can occur simultaneously & movement thru the stages may be reversible but the primary focus of career counseling is to help ppl become consciously aware of factors that lead to decision at each stage & are better able to make choices based on full knowledge of themselves & relevant external factors.

2 Phases:

Anticipation Phase has 4 Stages:

Exploration

Crystalization

Choice

Specification

The Indiv. explores different career possibilities & eventually makes a career choice.

Implementation & Adjustment Phase has 3 Stages:

Induction

Reformation

Integration

The indiv. enters the work situation & eventually becomes an established member of the work force & achieves a balance btwn demands of work & his/her own needs.

Proposes that career decisions are based on what the indiv. has learned from interactions w/other ppl & places an emphasis on social learning (i.e. Modeling & other aspects of the social env.) An indiv. career decisions are influenced by 4 factors:

Genetic endowment & special abilities

Env. conditions & events

Learning Experiences including both instrumental (learn from reward & punishment) & associative (learn from classical conditioning)

Task Approach Skills that are the result of an interaction w/other 3 factors.

Approach does NOT focus on matching and indivs. charateristics to job charateristics but on promoting continual learning & self-devel. that helps the indiv. to respond to changes in work requirements.

→Career belief inventory used to ID irrational illogical beliefss that affect and indiv. career related decisions.

Emphasizes a person's career concept, which refers to how the person envisions his/her ideal career path.

Distinguishes btwn 4 career concepts that vary on 3 dimensions:

Linear Career Concept: Indiv. views their career as involving a progressive upward movement in terms of authority & responsibility.

Expert Career Concept: Indiv. views their career as involving a lifelong committment to an occupational specialtiy & focuses on devel. knowledge & skills in that specialty.

Spiral Career Concept: Indiv. envisions their career as involving periodic moves across occupational specialties or disciplines.

Transitory Career Concept: Indiv. considers the ideal career as involving frequent job changes often to unrelated fields.

3 Dimensions:

Frequency of job change

Direction of job change

Type of change in job content

Describes satisfaction, tenure, & other job outcomes as the result of the correspondence btwn the worker & his/her work env. on 2 dimensions:

Worker Satisfaction: w/the job depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to his/her needs & values

Worker Satisfactoriness: depends on the extent to which the worker's skills correspond to the skill demands of the job.

Predicts there is an interaction btwn a worker & their job so over time the job affects the charateristics of the worker & worker affects the demands of the job.

Downsizing occurs when an org. attempts to reduce its costs by reducing the size of the work force &/or by eliminating entire divisions or businesses.

Workers who are not "downsized" may exhibit:

Survivor syndrome, which is characterized by depression, anxiety, guilt. stress-related illnesses, & decreased job satisfaction & organizational commitment.

Applied the scientific method to the study of job productivity.

Based on the assumption that workers are motivated primarily by economic self-interest (pay). Pay that is directly liknked to performance is most useful for maximizing EE's motivation.

Involves:

Scientifically analyzing jobs into their component parts & then standardizing those parts

Scientifically selecting, training & placing workers in jobs for which they are mentally & physically suited

Fostering cooperation btwn supervisors & workers to min. deviation from scientific methods of work

Having managers & workers assume responsibility for thier own share of their work

Emphasizes the impact of worker needs, attitudes & relationships on satisfaction, motivation & productivity.

Based on research at the Western Electric Company (1920-1930), which found that psychological & social factors were important contributors to job perf.

Interviews w/workers revealed that improvements in perf. were due to the attention they recieved as research participants, which became known as the Hawthorne Effect.

Also found that level of perf. was affected by informal work grp norms that determined what levels of perf. were acceptable & found that workers who produced too little or too much were snubbed by co-workers.

The Hawthorne effect refers to an improvement in job performance resulting from participation in a research study (i.e., due to the novelty of the situation, increased attention, etc.).

According to this theory manager's assumptions affect how EE's actually behave.

Theory X Managers: Believe EE's dislike work & avoid it whenever possible, & as a result must be directed & controlled thru persuasion, rewards & punishments to ensure they exert the effort needed to meet org. goals.

Theory Y Managers: (Most Effective) View work as being "as natural as play" & assume that EE's are capable of self-control & self-direction. They work collaboratively w/EE's to align EE & org. goals & help EE's achieve thier potential.

Am managers belief about an EE has a self-fulfilling prophecy effect.

Theory of motivation, which proposes that ppl have 5 basic needs that act as the primary source of motivation & are arranged in a hierarchical order; such that higher order needs don't serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled.

Lower order needs (Physiological & Saftey needs) always take precedence over higher order needs (Social/love/belonging, Esteem & Self-Actualization); the lowest unfulfilled need is the primary source of motivation untill satisfied.

Self-Actualization (Highest Need) unlike the other 4 is never completely satisfied.

Not well supported by the research & has mixed results:

Evidence that unfulfilled needs are usually more powerful sorces of motivation than needs that have already been satisfied

Little support for prediction of 5 distinct needs, that these needs are activated in the proposed order, or that only one need at a time serves as the primary source of motivation.

Alderfer's modification of Maslow's theory, which distinguishes btwn 3 basic needs: 1. Existence 2. Relatedness 3. Growth Proposed ppl may be motivated by more than 1 need at a time & that the activation of needs does not always progress from lower to higher; ppl may regress to a lower level when a need is frustrated. * More than 1 need can act as a motivator at any point in time. Opportunities for increased compensation may help satidfy and indivs. needs & lead to increased satisfaction/motivation.

(McClelland) Used the TAT to Id needs that underlie job motivation. Res. results showed that basic needs are culturally determined & that 3 needs often act as motivators in work settings:

Need for Achievement: Refers to the need to surpass standards of excellence & to advance & grow (indiv. are goal/task oriented).

Need for Power: Refers to the need to control or influence others:

Socialized Power: Used to benefit others

Personalized Power: Used to benefit oneself

Need for Affiliation: Refers to the need to est. warm & close rel. w/other ppl (These indiv. work best in teams & jobs that req. them to relate well to others).

Also devel. theory nACH

(David McClelland) is one of the primary needs underlying human motivation. He contrasted ppl that are:

High nACH These EE's usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty & risk, bc success on these tasks depends more on effort than on uncontrollable factors.

Prefer frequent concrete feedback, & althought their motivation does not depend on money; view monetary rewards as a source of feedback & recognition.

Ex: Workers w/high nACH prefer moderately difficult perf. goals w/50% chance of success.

Assoc.w/Gamblers bc are high risk takers

Moderate nACH = Achievement motivated ppl prefer moderate levels of risk.

A theory of both satisfaction & motivation & pay does not act as a source of motivation.

Predicts that satisfaction & dissatisfaction are independent charateristics. Implies that ppl can be both satisfied & dissatisfied at the same time & diff. factors contribute to one or the other.

Hygiene Factors/Lower-level Needs: Factors that prod. dissatisfaction when absent & include pay, a safe work-env. & plesant relations w/co-workers. →When adequate the indiv. no longer feels dissatisfied but is neutral, yet when unfulfilled is dissatisfied.

Motivator Factors/Higher-order Needs: Factors that prod. satisfaction & motivation when present & include increased autonomy, opportunities for decision making, responsibility, control, recognition & advancement. → Have little effect on satisfaction/motivation when unfulfilled but increase both when fulfilled.

A method of job redesign in which the job is made more challenging & rewarding in order to increase job motivation & satisfaction. Includes giving each EE more:

Decision-making responsibility

Autonomy

Have each EE/work grp complete and entire unit of work.

This is usually welcomed by younger & well-educated EE's, who have the skills needed to perf. the enriched job (EE's w/high nACH); It can elicit anxiety & frustration in EE's w/low nACH

Not just for higher level jobs but can be applied to ay job. To increase motivation/satisfaction motivtor factors must be provided by the job.

Increasing the variety of tasks worker alienation & boredom are likely reduced.

(Based on Herzberg's two-factor Theory)

Involves increaasing the number & variety of tasks included in a job w/out increasing the worker's motivator factors such as autonomy, responsibility, etc.

Increasing the variety of tasks can reduce worker boredome & alienation but does not produce satisfied/motivated workers.

A theory of job motivation, predicts that EE's will be more motivated to achieve goals & are most effective when they are:

Specific & moderately difficult

When EE's are committed to them

When they have explicitly accepted those goals

When EE's are provided w/feedback about their progress toward achieving goals

These factors will increases productivity.

Participation in goal setting in not critical but but can increase goal acceptance & commitment especially w/ppl high in nACH.

when EE's participate they tend to ID goals that are more difficult than those ID by sups alone

​Interdependent tasks (req. grp members to collaborate to prod. an effective outcome) grp goals lead to greater productivity than indiv. goals.

(Theory of motivation) Proposes that an EE's motivation is related to the EE's perception/comparison of his/her input/outcome ratio to the input/outcome ratios of others perf. the same or similar jobs.

When EE's percieve the ratios to be unequal, this affects their motivation & behavior (when percieved as equal maintain status quo).

2 types of inequitable situations:

Overpayment: Occurs when an EE thinks they put in less & get out more than others.

Underpayment: Occurs when an EE thinks they put in more & get out less than others.

Has the most negative/long-lasting consequences & can lead to lower, productivity, sabotage, absenteeism & turnover.

A perception of inequity leads to attempts to restore equity, w/the perception of underpayment inequity leading to more adverse outcomes than overpayment inequity does.

(Motivation Theory) That regards job motivation as the result of 3 elements:

Expectancy: Refers to the EE's beliefs about the rel. btwn effort & perf. (Increased effort will lead to increased job perf.)

Instrumentality: Refers to EE's beliefs about the rel. btwn perf. & outcomes (effective job perf. will be rewarded)

Valence: Refers to the value the EE places on the avalible outcvomes.

The highest levels of motivation occur when an EE percieves that high job effort results in high task success (high expectancy), that high success leads to the attainment of certain outcomes/goals (high instrumentality), and that the outcomes are desirable (positive valence).

Bandura's theory of motivation that emphasizes the self-regualtion of behavior & proposes that self-regulation involves 4 processes:

Goal Setting: Indiv. est. personal goals that represent a desired behavioral state, w/the nature of these goals being influenced by the indiv. past exp. & self-efficacy beliefs.

Self-Observation: After setting goals the indiv. monitors his/her goal related behaviors.

Self-Evaluation: Indiv. uses info obtained during self-observation to compare current behaviors to behavioral goals.

Self-Reaction: Self-eval. results in both positive & negative reactions:

Positive: Occurs when current behaviors are consistent w/behavioral goals & leads to satisfaction, increased self-efficacy & the setting of higher standards & goals in the future.

Negative: Occur when current behavior falls short of behavioral goals & causes dissatisfaction & motivates the indiv. to increase his/her effort, alter perf. strategies, modify goals, or abandon the activity.

An EE's cognitive, affective & evaluative reactions to his/her job. High levels of satisfaction are assoc. w/certain workers & job charateristics:

Older EE's

Higher-level EE's

EE's whose jobs allow them to use their skills & abilities

Tend to be more satisfied.

Straw & Ross's research found satisfaction levels of over 5,000 men remained stable over a 5 yr. period despite changes in occupation & employers. Job satisfaction is related to stable affect over time.

Negative Affect = Dissatisfied w/work

Positive Affect = Satisfied

The rel. is complex & seems to be rlated more to the perception that one is being paid fairly than to the actual amount of pay.

The correlation btwn satisfaction & performance is generally considered to be positive but low (meta-analysis rpts a correlation of .30) The strongest relationship is btwn satisfaction and turnover (r=-.40)

Refers to the strength of an EE's identification w/the organization (psych. attachement). 3 types of org. committment: 1. Affective: Refers to EE's ID w/emotional attachement & involvement in the org. (least predictive of productivity & most predicitive of outcomes) 2. Continuance: Refers to EE's perception regarding social & monetary cost of leaving the org. 3. Normative: Refers to EE's sense of obligation to remaining w/the org. bc s/he believes it's the right thing to do. Committment seems to have minimal effects on productivity, a high degree of affective committment is related to higher levels of motivation & satisfaction, loer rates of absenteeism & turnover, & greater willingness to make sacrifices for the org.

Research at the Ohio State University found that the behavior of leaders can be described in terms of 2 independent dimensions: 1. Consideration (person-centered style): Refer to the degree to which the leader is person-oriented. Concerned about subordinates needs, give priority to est. a good rel. w/subordinates & include in decision making. 2. Initiating structure (task-oriented style): Refers to the degree to which the leader is task-oriented. Concerned primarily w/getting the job done & emphasize goal setting, adhering to rules & standards & making leader & subordinate roles explicit. The res. found that the 2 dimensions are independent & that a combo of high levels of both dimensions is assoc. w/the best outcomes (can be high/low on both or a combo)

Eagly and Johnson's (1990) meta-analysis of the research found that: Male & female leaders do not consistently differ in terms of consideration or initiating structure. Female leaders are more likely to rely on a democratic (participative) decision-making style, while * Men tend to be more autocratic & directive.

Studies have found relatively low correlations btwn leader perf. & measures of intellectual ability (Correlations of .20-.30). 1st explanation is that it is due to a restriction in range of scores on intelligence measures which reduce the size of the correlation coefficent. 2nd explanation is that it's due to the effects of moderator variables such as the leaders exp., stress level & leadership style & by the size of the discrepancy btwn the leaders level of inteligence & the EE's. * Leaders are more effective when they are only slightly more intelligent than thier subordinates.

(LPC) refers to the way the leadership style was measured; by having leaders rate their least preferred co-worker (LPC) on several dimensions such as freindly/unfreindly, supportive/hostile & open/guarded.

Some leaders were able to say something nice about a (LPC) bc they were able to separate competence at work from other charateristics & these ppl were refered to as high LPC leaders.

Used to distingush btwn 2 leadership styles:

Low LPC Leader: describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms

High LPC Leader: describe their least preferred coworker in positive terms

Assumes that a leader cannot change his/her leadership style, can only be High or Low LPC leaders. They must be chosen so their leadership style fits the characteristics of the job situation or modified to fit the style of the leader.

Proposes the most effective leadership style depends on the favorableness of the situation.

Favorableness is determined by the nature of the leader's relationship w/subordinates, the degree of task structure & leaders power (control of subordinates), affected by the ability to dist rewards & punishments.

Low LPC leaders (Task-oriented) most effective in very favorable & unfavorable situations.

High LPC leaders (Person-oriented) do best in moderately favorable situations.

Proposes that motivation, satisfaction & perf. are maxed when EE's believe that the primary task of the leader (best leadership style) is to help subordiantes find the best path for attaining personal goals. Primary Fx's are:

Clarify goals & paths that will lead to thier achievement

Providing rewardsto subordinates thru support & attention to thier needs

The best style of the 4 depends on certain charateristics of the worker (traits/abilities) & the work (task; level of ambiguity/structure) helps EE's see how achieving org. goals will help them attain indiv. goals.

Leaders accomplish this by adopting 1 of 4 leadership styles:

1. Instrumental (Directive): Provide specific guidelines & est. clear rules & procedures.

2. Supportive: Focus on est. good rel. w/workers & staisfying their needs.

3. Participative: Include subordinated in decision-making.

4. Achievment-Oriented: Set challenging goals for workers & encourage high levels of perf.

Best leadership style depends on certain charateristics of the EE's, the work env., EE's ability level, locus of control & structure of task.

Proposes that the best leadership style depends on the job maturity of the workers, which is a Fx of ability & willingness to assume responsibility.

4 leader styles that each represent a different task & relationship style:

Telling: Leaders have high task, low rel. orientation = EE's low willingness & ability

Selling: Leaders have high task, high rel. orientation.

Participating: Leaders have low task, high rel. orientation = EE's low willingness & high ability

Delegating: Leaders have low task, low relationship oritnetation.

Most effective style depends on the "EE's maturity" level, which is determined by his/her willingness to assume responsibility & ability level; 2 aspects:

Job Maturity - Refers to EE's knowledge & skills

Psychological Maturity - Refers to EE's self-confidence & willingness to assume responsibility.

(Vroom-Yetton-Jago) Theory of leadership that focuses on 5 decision making style/strategies & proposes that the best strategy depends on the nature of the situation. Provides a decision tree to help leaders choose the best strategy.

5 basic decision strategies that vary in terms of degree to which EE's participate in decision making (autocratic, consultative & group):

AI (Autocratic) - The leader makes decisions alone

AII (Autocratic) - The leader seeks input from EE's but then makes the final decision themself

CI (Consultative) - The leader explains the probs. to each EE one-on-one, but decision may/may not reflect EE input

CII (Consultative) - The leader explains the probs. to EE's as a grp, but decision may/may not reflect EE input.

G (Group) - The leader explains the probs. to EE's as a grp & grp makes final decision

Influential leaders who are characterized by their ability to:

Recognize the need for change,

Communicate a vision for change (including defining the need for change in a way that is meaningful to followers)&

Effectively execute/accomplish change.

They rely on a variety of strategies to motivate EE's by:

Being sensitive to EE's needs

Devel. close relationships

Empowering EE's by including them in prob. solving & decision-making

Giving goals added meaning & value/purpose by placing them in a larger context (e.g., the "good of society") aka "framing."

Focus on maintaining the status quo & use rewards & punishments to motivate subordinates behavior.

Some also rely on "management by exception," which reflects the assumption that it's not ncessary tp take action unless there is a problem

These managers may closely monitor the work of EE's &

Provide corrective feedback or criticism when something goes wrong or

Not talk to EE's when probs. occur but give poor perf. evals later

Exert influence primarily thru their own personal qualities (self-confidence/charisma). They empower followers & activate their higher-order needs.

Have a "dark side" & may expect unquestioning loyalty, devotion & obidience from followers.

(Hollander) Are the standard rules of conduct that maintain uniformity of behavior among group members.

Several Conditions contribute to a members conformity to grp norms:

Task Demands: When grp members work together to achieve a common goal; greater in ambiguous situations.

Grp Charaterisitcs: Conformity increases as the consensus of the grp members increases & members are percieved as being highly credible & trustworthy.

Participation in Defining Norms: Members more likely to conform when helped define norms.

(Hollander) Are positive sentiments w/in a grp toward a member that allow that member to occasionally deviate from grp norms.

A person accumulates idiosyncrasy credits when:

he/she has a history of conforming to norms,

has contributed in some special way to the group, or

has served as the group leader.

In Grps, high cohesivness is assoc. w/greater consistency in productivity, but whether this results in high or low perf. depends on the nature of the norms.

In contrast, when cohesivness is low, grp norms have less impact so that regardless of the norms, grp productivity is usually in the moderate range.

(Steiner) Tasks perf. by grps can be classified into 4 types:

Additive Tasks: The indiv. contiributions of grp members are added together to form the grp product.

Compensatory Tasks: The inputs of grp members are averaged together to create a single product.

Disjunctive Tasks: Grp members must select the solution or decision offered by one of the grp members (ideally best memeber)

**Conjunctive Task: The grps overall perf. is limited by that of the worst performing member.

For teams working on interdependent tasks, grp goals are more effective than indiv. goals & a combo of the 2 may be more effective than grp goal alone.

Grp rewards are categorized as either:

Cooperative: Most effective when interdependence is high.

Competitive: Most effective when interdependence is low, & leads to greater motivation & productivity.

Tendency of an indiv. to work less when acting as a member of a team than when working alone.

Can be reduced when the indivs. contribution is ID & rewarded & when grp members consider the task important/meaningful.

Most likely to occur on additive tasks where the contribution of each member is added to form the grp product.

Early explaination was that this occrs bc the mere presence of others increases arousal which in turn increases the likelihood that the person will perform the dominant/habitual response. 2 Types:

Social Facilitation: Refers to the increase in learning & perf. that occurs in the presence of others; most likely to occur when the task is easy/simple, routine or well-learned/rehersed.

Social Inhibition: Refers to the decrease in learning & perf. that occurs in the presence of others; most likely to occur when the task is difficult, new or complex.

Modified explanation attributes this to evaluation apprehensio/Perf. eval. than to just the presence of others.

Occurs when the mere presence of others increases task perf. & is most likely to occur when the task is simple or well-learned.

Occurs when the presence of others decreases perf. & is morelikely when the task is complex or new (unlearned).

(Tuckman & Jensen) Distinguishes btwn 5 Stages:

Forming: Members become acquainted & attempt to est. "ground rules."

Storming: Characterized by conflict as grp members resist the control of grp leaders.

Norming: Begins when grp members accept the grp., established ground rules, & indiv. roles w/in the grp., devel. close rel. w/each other & begin to work together to achieve grp goals.

Performing: Grp members have accepted each others strengths & weaknesses, are clear about own roles & focus on getting the job done.

Adjourning: Grp disbands bc the grps. goals have been met or bc grp. members have left.

Communication networks are patterns of communicaion btwn grp members or btwn positions/departments in an org. & are categorized as:

Centralized: (Best for simple tasks)

All communication passes thru a central person.

Ex: Wheel, chain, Y

Decentralized: (Better for complex, unstructured tasks w/a # of diff. solutions)

Are associated with greater overall satisfaction.

Info. can flow freely from 1 indiv. to another w/out having to go thru a central person.

Ex: Circle

Assumes decisions (decision-makers) are made on a rational process:

Having complete info.,

Considering all alternatives & consequences

Before making a decision in an unbiased way.

Model assumes that decision-makers will consider all possible alternatives & choose the optimal one

Criticism: Does not take into account that a decision-maker's knowledge about alt. is often incomplete.