GRE® Psychology Measurement, Methodology and Other: History Part 4

Stanley Hall

John Dewey

Edward Titchener

University of Pennsylvania; Columbia University

Dorothea Lynde Dix

Edward Thorndike

Alfred Adler

Carl Gustav Jung

Clark Hull

Edward Tolman

clinical psychology

He was one of the founders of ethology who also did extensive research with duckling imprinting

Carl Rogers

the hierarchy of needs

crisis

This is a field of psychology that focuses on the fact that people innately want to search for meaning and purpose to add substance to their lives; a major psychologist in this field was Viktor Frankl.

Aaron Beck

1. The child's interaction with the physical world leads to logical cognition.

2. He has a stage theory and going through the stages leads to qualitative changes in the way you reason.

3. Universal: everyone develops the same way and culture has only a small role.

4. The mind is active.

5. Functional part of his theory has assimilation and accommodation.

6. Structural part of his theory has schemas and operations.

• Philosophers (Descartes, Hobbs, Locke, Berkeley)

• Sensory-Physiologists (Bell-Magendie, Muller, Helmholtz, Weber-Fechner)

• Structuralist (Wundt and Titchner)

• Functionalist (James, Thorndike, Cattel)

• Behaviorist (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Hull, and Tolman)

• Gestalt (Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka)

• Clinical (Freud, Jung, Adler)

It quantifies the relationship between stimulus magnitude and perceived intensity.

The Weber-Fechner Law is foundational in psychometrics, illustrating that perception of change in a given stimulus is proportional to the initial stimulus.

Nominal scale

Nominal scales classify data into distinct categories, such as gender or race, without any order or ranking.

False

Ordinal scales indicate the order of values but not the precise difference between them, such as rankings in a race.

Consistency of scores across time when the same test is administered on two different occasions.

Test-retest reliability assesses the stability of a test over time, indicating its temporal reliability.

A measure of how well the items on a test measure the same construct or concept.

Internal consistency is often measured using Cronbach's alpha, ensuring that test items cohesively evaluate a single dimension.

Content validity

Content validity ensures comprehensive coverage of the construct, often assessed by expert judgment.

Criterion

Criterion validity evaluates how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another established measure.

• CTT assumes that each test item contributes equally to the total score.

• IRT considers the properties of each item and its interaction with the latent trait.

IRT provides a more nuanced understanding of item characteristics, often used for adaptive testing, unlike the simpler assumptions of CTT.

• Experimental design manipulates variables to establish cause-effect relationships.

• Correlational design examines associations between variables without manipulation.

Only experimental designs can determine causality, whereas correlational designs are limited to identifying relationships.

Selection bias

Selection bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population, potentially skewing study results.

Informed consent

Informed consent involves providing participants with all necessary information about the study to make an educated decision about their involvement.

True

Ratio scales allow for meaningful comparisons of absolute magnitudes because they have a true zero, unlike interval scales that lack this feature.

To identify the tasks, responsibilities, and skills required for a job.

Job analysis is essential for developing job descriptions and specifications, which are foundational for recruitment, performance appraisal, and training.

• Task inventories

• Critical incidents

Task inventories involve listing and rating job tasks, while critical incidents focus on identifying key instances of effective or ineffective job performance.

True

Structured interviews use standardized questions, leading to more reliable and valid assessments of candidates compared to unstructured interviews.

It refers to the application of validity evidence from one context to another.

This concept suggests that certain selection tests can be valid across different jobs or settings, reducing the need to conduct new validation studies.

Immediate application of skills in the work environment.

On-the-job training allows employees to learn by doing, which can enhance retention and relevance of the new skills.

• Expectancy

• Instrumentality

• Valence

Expectancy theory posits that motivation is based on the belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to rewards, and the rewards are valuable.

Transformational

Transformational leaders seek to change and improve the organization by encouraging innovation and commitment from their followers.

• Clear values and vision

• Supportive leadership

A positive organizational culture fosters employee engagement, satisfaction, and productivity by aligning organizational goals with employee values and practices.

Promoting the well-being and safety of employees in the workplace.

Occupational health psychology addresses issues such as stress management, injury prevention, and work-life balance to enhance overall employee health.

• Job satisfaction: Contentment with job aspects.

• Job engagement: Emotional investment in work.

While job satisfaction reflects how content an employee is with their job, job engagement indicates a deeper involvement and enthusiasm for their work tasks and outcomes.

Provides specific examples of behavior for feedback.

Critical incidents focus on specific, observable instances of employee performance, offering detailed and actionable feedback for improvement.

The effectiveness with which a team meets its objectives and goals.

Team performance involves collaboration, communication, and coordination among team members to achieve desired outcomes efficiently and effectively.

True

According to reinforcement theory, behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur.

To systematically plan, develop, and implement training programs.

Instructional design ensures that training is effective, efficient, and aligned with organizational goals by using a structured approach to learning.

• Integrity

• Emotional intelligence

Effective leaders often exhibit traits such as integrity, which fosters trust, and emotional intelligence, which enhances communication and relationship management.

Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they can be conditioned or reinforced.

Behaviorism, founded by John B. Watson and further developed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior through reinforcement and punishment.

1. Analysis

2. Design

3. Development

4. Implementation

5. Evaluation

The ADDIE model is a framework used by instructional designers to create effective educational experiences through a systematic approach.

False

Formative assessments are used throughout the learning process to provide feedback and guide instruction, while summative assessments evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional period.

Accommodation

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, accommodation refers to altering existing schemas or creating new ones when new information doesn't fit into existing schemas.

The Humanistic approach

The Humanistic approach, influenced by theorists like Carl Rogers, focuses on creating a supportive learning environment through empathy and understanding.

Zone of Proximal Development

| (ZPD)

Vygotsky's ZPD highlights the potential for cognitive development and the importance of social interaction in learning, suggesting that learning occurs in this gap with appropriate support.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, a concept developed by Albert Bandura, affects motivation, learning, and performance, influencing how people approach goals, tasks, and challenges.

Criterion-referenced assessment

Criterion-referenced assessments measure a student's knowledge or skills against specific learning standards, unlike norm-referenced assessments, which compare students to each other.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of a test over time, ensuring that it produces stable and consistent results across different administrations and contexts.

Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction

Gagné's framework includes steps such as gaining attention, providing feedback, and enhancing retention, aimed at optimizing the learning process.

False

Multimedia can enhance learning for all types of learners by providing diverse representations of information, catering to multiple sensory modalities, and improving engagement and retention.

Item analysis

Item analysis involves examining questions to determine their difficulty, discrimination, and effectiveness, helping educators refine assessments and improve their validity.

accommodations

Accommodations can include changes in the presentation of material, response format, testing conditions, or instructional strategies to support students with disabilities.

Flexibility

E-learning provides flexibility in terms of time and location, allowing learners to access educational materials and complete coursework at their own pace and convenience.

To enable learners to construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflection.

Constructivism, influenced by theorists like Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes active engagement and hands-on learning, where learners build on their prior knowledge and experiences.