Positive Psychology: WJEC: AS and A2 Psychology Terms Part 2

A measure of central tendency - the most common frequency.
There can be more than one mode:
E.g. 'bimodal' (two modes)
multimodal (many modes)

More of a survey than an experiment because the researchers do not control or cannot control any IVs (independent variables); instead they observe and take data. If a comparison is desired than a review of behaviour before and after an event may be useful (e.g., how does a by-pass affect town life), or pursue LONGITUDINAL studies - following ppts over a long period of time.

The main mechanism in the theory of EVOLUTION: the weak or non-adaptive members of a species do not thrive and do not reproduce, while the stronger and more adaptive do - these pass their genes onto the next generation (or teach their offspring how to survive better).

Observing the behaviour of people in their natural environment. That is outside of laboratories or psychology departments!

A correlation that shows one variable rising while the other falls.
e.g, rising temperature and ability to focus.

The scientific study of the brain and nervous system. Typically used by the biological approach, which assumes that the brain is the mind and the mind is the brain.

This is a chemical that transmits signals between neurons In the brain, such as dopamine and serotonin. Imbalances may cause abnormal feelings or behaviour.

NOMinal data is NAMED data which can be separated into discrete categories which do not overlap.
A common example of nominal data is gender; male and female.

This is a hypothesis for which the researcher does not have a precise prediction. The researcher may be looking for a difference or correlation but does not know which way it will go. Also known as a two tailed hypothesis

This is when a researcher remains outside and unobserved during an experiment for observation.

The null hypothesis is a generally accepted statement or notion, which researchers try to nullify by offering an alternate hypothesis.
E.g., 'young people are bad drivers' is a generalisation that can be tested for its robustness.
The null hypothesis Ho may be accepted of course, but a researchers job is to TEST the obvious at times!

A form of social influence in which people do as they're told by an authority figure.

This is a research method in which the researcher observes people usually in their NATURAL ENVIRONMENT recording what they do and say.
E.g., Mary Ainsworth studied how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers

1. Natural observation

2. Controlled observation

3. Covert observation

4. Overt observation

5. Participant observation

6. Nonparticipant observation.

Behavioural learning that is dependent on being rewarded or punished. "Good boy/girl" or smiles or smarties for doing good work. For adults - bonuses and 'employee of the month' schemes. It is associated with behaviourism.

This is to make something measurable. E.g. to give a score on an experiment or survey, such as this beautiful person scores an 8.

This is when the researcher chooses people close to where he or she works or socialises to ask them questions for a survey. It is done because it is convenient.

Ordinal data on numbers that are given an order or rank = ORDER
Cardinal data are given an actual numbers =HOW MANY

This is when the researcher is directly involved in the situation been survey aid or observed. Compare this with nonparticipant observation, in which he or she is removed and unobserved.

The collection of common traits that make us who we are.

This is an initial survey usually quite brief that is given out to a few people to get feedback from participants and also for the researcher to review before going on to a more formal study. This gives the researcher a chance to remove any problematic questions or issues.

This is the study of optimal human living that aims to help people prosper and lead healthier more satisfactory lives. It has been popularised by Martin Seligman but has a long history going back to the Ancient Greeks.

As one variable increases so does the other.

Primary sources are gathered by the researcher, while secondary sources are gathered from other peoples research.

This is a technique in which the client learns to relax tension in muscles that are related to stress or anxiety to enable them to discuss or change how they react to stimuli.

The mind

In this approach the mind is seen as being influenced by changing and powerful unconscious forces; commonly associated with the work of Freud and his followers.

This is the approach that says mental health problems resulting from abnormal thoughts and feelings originate in our psychology. (How we think…)

Psychological therapies assume that mental health issues are derived from our psychology, and therefore can imply techniques such as psychoanalysis, systematic desensitisation as well as cognitive behavioural therapies.

This is the therapy that aims to remove the symptoms of mental illness by destroying areas of the brain that is associated with the relevant dysfunction.

Quantitated data is numerical and qualitative data is in the form of opinions or words.

This is a positive approach therapy that aims to help clients identify and meet their goals and wishes in life.

This is similar to stratified sample link. Proportions of different groups within the target population are calculated and hence given a quota e.g. 50, and when the quota is satisfied, any other ppts from that Segment will be ignored. E.g. a researcher may want to question 50 people from East London and 60 from West London, and so on.

This is a method of sampling in which all participants have an equal probability of being chosen, e.g. from electoral registration number or being pulled out of a hat.

The range you will remember from maths is the highest take away the lowest, but it is called a measure of dispersion in statistics. That is, how much the data is dispersed.

Cardinal, ordinal, ratio, interval. Data can be measured in any of these four styles.

Ratio scales are the best when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied.
Here we can use phrases such as twice as big, or 3:1 ratio.

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values.

E.g. temperature, because the difference between each value is the same. For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees. Time is another good example of an interval scale in which the increments are known, consistent, and measurable.

This is the therapy that seeks to replace irrational thoughts with rational thoughts so that behaviour can change over time. This is a cognitive theory. Example, "My life is either really good or really bad." This is a cognitive distortion that can lead to emotional issues, whereas the therapy would point out that life is more complicated then either good/bad.

In systematic desensitisation a clients stress response becomes inhibited because it is incompatible with another action. E.g. if a client is very relaxed, stressful stimulus normally causing anxiety does not happen because it is counteracted by the relaxed state.

This is the theory that we don't store exact records of events in our memory, but that when we recall information with changes according to our logic and commonsense. Memories are therefore reconstructed rather than exact replicas of an event that was witnessed or experienced.

This is something that increases the probability of a behaviour happening again, used in learning theories.

Also noticed consistency. A study is reliable such that when repeated Its findings are similar. In observational surveys, we check whether different researchers are observing the same categories of behaviour. This is known as inter-rater reliability.

This is when each participant takes part in an experiment on more than one occasion. The person the performance is then compare it under each condition that is changed. E.g. test scores and the different temperatures, or size of room, or number of other confederates.

When researchers behave in ways that may influence investigation.
For examples in the language or behaviour that they use that may subtly mean something to ppts and hence change research outcomes.

The act of choosing participants for a study

A method used to select participants from a target population based on characteristics. A population is everybody that could be targeted, while a sampling frame lists particular characteristics or names. E.g. a population study of towns and villages over 1000 people in Somerset, a sampling frame would list all of those towns and villages.

Also known as a scatterplot or scatter graph, it is used to depict potentially correlating data: y versus x axes and data plotted according to the surveys.

A collection of ideas for people, places, activities; a cognitive framework on how we associate ideas in our minds. Example, think of amphibians and you may come up with frogs, toads, newts.

A method of getting data from people in which the ppts provide the information themselves through a questionnaire or interview.

Semistructured lies between a fully structured interview in which the same questions are asked each participant, and open interview in which no predetermined questions are formed. In the semistructured interview there are topics that the researcher will cover but in which order is very much up to the particular interviewer..

This is the stress that children show on the separation of somebody who is a primary caregiver (loved one) as well as the approach of somebody unfamiliar (fear).

Used by researchers to find similar ppts, by asking current participants for referrals as they may know people of a similar characteristic being sought. E.g., Welsh speakers in London, Xanax addicts in 6th Form.

When someone or a participant alters behaviour or responses to betray themselves in a way that is apparently desirable to society. E.g., financially prudent, professionally competent, Church going, studious. etc.

This is another measure of dispersion (see the range) which is calculated by formula to describe the average distance that values lie from the mean. A low standard deviation means that the data are grouped around the mean, while a high standard deviation suggests the data are more dispersed.

This is when a researcher divides a population into strata, such as H or gender or profession and then participants are selected randomly from each strata based on a weighted proportion of the population.
E.g., if 65% of a school of 1000 are girls and 45% are boys, then 65% of a survey of 100 ppts should be girls (65 girls, 45 boys).

This is the body's way of responding to a demand placed on it, a stressor. stress may be good or bad. Good stress ("eustress") motivates us to think clearer or work more effectively, While bad stress (distress) closes down how mental abilities and we can freeze. The body goes through a biochemical response in response to stress (release of adrenaline etc)

The same questions are given to each participant in the same order.

Researchers are keen to find the measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion to provide a summary of what they have found.

Based on the behavioural approach and classical conditioning, it is used to help reduce feelings of anxiety. This may involve teaching relaxation while increasingly stressful stimuli or introduced: e.g. calming the mind before a small spider is introduced in a glass cage… then without the cage …and then a larger spider… And then a tarantula…

Choosing every nth person in a list.

| E.g., every fifth person on a list of 200 for a survey of 40.

All the members of a particular group from which ppts for a survey are chosen.
E.g. students aged 16 to 17.

Making observations at certain time intervals within a given period. E.g. every five minutes for 60 minutes

Freud's theory that the adult is made up of three components, the id, ego, and superego.
(Also used by the Ancient Greek thinker, Plato).

Participants must be fully informed about a study before they agree to take part. Compare deception..

The research investigate what it says it will investigate. In other words the researchers use appropriate measurements for the study.

• Concurrent validity

• Predictive validity

• Content validity

• Face validity

• Construct vadlidity

Anything that is changed or controlled in research. These can be extraneous, independent, or dependent variables.

Sampling method in which participants volunteer to take part perhaps as a result of an advert.

Correlation data in which there is no relationship between variables.
e.g., number of trees planted in 2018 in UK versus number of students taking psychology.

1) Questionnaires and surveys
2) Content analysis - reviewing forums, say, for use of language, interaction, number of ppts on a group
3) Online interview using Skype or equivalent