Positive Psychology: WJEC: AS and A2 Psychology Terms Part 3

1) findings are generalisable
2) procedures are replicable so someone else can test the findings using the same experiment
3) findings are reliable, such that if the experiment were repeated similar results are found

An experiment in which the researcher cannot manipulate the IV and ppts cannot be randomly assigned to groups. E.g., if looking at how responses differ according to gender, gender becomes the IV but cannot be (ethically…) altered.

A list of prewritten questions using closed and/or open questions

Closed questions permit a limited response.
1) Rank order (put into order your favourite classes: psych, socio, chem, maths…)
2) Likert scale questions (agree/disagree on a scale of 1 to 10 your response to "I enjoy meeting new people")
3) Checklist - check three words that most apply: when in psychology class I feel: happy sad confused thrilled distracted lost competent
4) Dichotomous question: yes or no.
Do you smoke (yes/no)
5) Semantic differential questions - use of two extreme values and ppt makes a mark on scale:
My psychology teacher is:
Boring ;;;:_Interesting
My father is:
Distracted … … … … … … Focused on my needs

Rank order (put into order your favourite classes: psych, socio, chem, maths…)

Statements to indicate strength of agreement/disagreement (1=not at all, 5=strongly agree)
I have vivid dreams: 1,2,3,4,5
I enjoy being the centre of attention: 1,2,3,4,5

A list of items that the ppt circles or ticks.
When at college I feel:
content, sense of belonging, feel like I'm outsider, confident, lost, confused, sad, unwanted, unnoticed, great

Only two choices offered yes/no
Have you played online games? yes/no
Have you had any operations? yes/no
Do you speak French? yes/no...
(not sure where that research would go...!)

Using two bipolar words (opposites) ppts indicate a point towards one or the other or in between that marks their response.
During the game I felt:
Incompetent ,_,,, competent

Ppts are given space/time to respond freely.

1. Lack of clarity - avoid ambiguous language that could confuse some ppts (use a pilot test!)

2. Embarrassing questions which could cause ppts to answer untruthfully (unless anonymity is fully given…consider ethical issues)

3. Social desirability bias (ppts answer in a wy that makes them feel good or answer according to how they think they should answer)

4. Leading questions (encouraging certain responses from ppts)

Electroencephalogram.

• electrodes placed on the scalp pick up electrical signals from active neurons in the brain - these are then amplified on a screen as BRAIN WAVES

Computed Axial Tomography.
PPT lies in a hollow tube and X-rays are then fired at the head from many angles to create a 2-D or 3-D image of the brain's anatomy.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
When the brain is active in certain areas blood will flow to those areas to supply more nutrients.
The MRI applies a magnetic field that changes the oxygen atoms in the blood allowing them to be detected.
Researchers use before and after images to detect the difference in nutrient flow.

Positron Emission Tomography.
Brain cells use glucose for energy - if they're being used, more glucose will be attracted to the area in question.
A small amount of radiation is injected into the blood stream which bonds to glucose molecules - when the glucose is used the radioactive material hangs around and emits positrons (positively charged ions) which are then detected by the scanner.
Interestingly, when they encounter electrons ( negatively charged ions) the two annihilate one another.

Following the same ppts over a period of time - years and even decades.

Instead of following the same ppts over time, researchers may look at different ppts at the same time.

• e.g., using a stratified sample (10% 10 yr olds, 10% 20 yr olds….) based on population to make a survey

• e.g., prevalence of breast cancer in 21-30; 31-40; 41-50; 51-70 year olds.

A test of a questionnaire's reliability. The questionnaire is split into two in which ever way you want, e.g. first half second-half or every other one, and the results of the two halves then compared with each other to ensure that the testers reliable overall..

If a questionnaire or test is tested and then re-tested and giving similar results, it is said to be reliable. (If the test is given to the same person, it has external reliability.)

Ecological validity
Population validity
Temporal validity

This is an assessment of how well the findings of the study can be generalised outside of the laboratory.

This is how well the results can be generalised outside of the sample of participants used in a survey or questionnaire.

This is when a study can be generalised over time periods. If similar responses are found, this may be reflective of something in human nature, rather than contemporary attitudes and expectations. For example attachment theory may present deeper results than the need to engage in social media.

Comparing a new measure of behaviour to one that is already been established as a valid measure.
For instance if the researcher comes up with a new way of studying aggression, and his or her results compare favourably with previous measures of aggression, then the new research has concurrent validity.

This is how well the score on one survey or test can predict the score on another survey or test.
Schools often use year 6 results to predict GCSE results and GCSE results to predict A-level results.
(You can think of some of the problems with that!)

This is to carefully check whether a test does what it says it tests. This means considering many aspects of the test or survey and how it fits in with current thinking.

(Of course, current thinking may be completely wrong or be challenged by tests that researchers would reject on grounds of content validity.)

A superficial or quick review of a test to see if it measures what it claims to measure.

This refers to whether a test measures and aspects of behaviour or a construct, that we are trying to measure. E.g. if we are trying to measure stress, behavioural categories such as feeling anxious, feeling tight in the throat, grasping the ground with your toes, clenching fists, etc. would fit, while 'eating out with friends' may not…

ACUTE is short lived (like a cut)
Episodic acute = recurring acute episode
CHRONIC is of long duration (chrono = time)

Repeated and compulsive behaviour or use of a substance that causes a sense of pleasure/intoxication, and which the person has difficulty giving up

Stress hormone - released by the adrenal glands to generate the fight/flight response (raised blood pressure, heart rate etc)

Agonist = a substance that mimics another substance but without harmful side effects.
Antagonist = a substance that blocks the effects of another substance to stop it from working

ALPHA = biases in theories that exaggerate gender differences (and thereby reinforce stereotyping)
BETA = on the other hand, beta biases minimise the differences between men and women (which may mean that aspects of women's lives - or men's! - may be ignored)

The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of nuclei located in the temporal lobes of the brain - it processes emotions.
Initially researchers focused on fear, but it also processes a range of emotions.

Idea that male (andro) behaviour and opinions form the basis of understanding all behaviour and opinions. [Opposite would be gynocentrism).

Use of animals in therapy to help improve patients sense of well-being (e.g., dementia, anxiety).

Helps to control stress by lowering heart rate and reducing blood pressure.

Receptors in the body that respond to adrenaline in the blood.
BETA 1 = heart
BETA 2 = lungs and muscles
[think about what happens to these organs when adrenaline released…]

Measurement of body's functions so the patient can use the feedback to help reduce reactions such as anxiety, fear, [stressors].

A person who is bullied who in turn becomes a bully.

Antisocial behaviour intending harm to another person.
DIRECT BULLYING: physical or verbal assault aimed at a person.
CYBER BULLYING: bullying that takes place through social media or mobile phones.

Normal processing of information (a story, things around us, people) that describes our ability to derive overall meaning from the details. [e.g., normal person sees many people and says, 'crowd'; autistic person sees many individuals]

With nominal data [ data that can only go into one category and not overlap ]
When numbers of ppts are in different categories.

Form of CBT [cognitive behavioural therapy] used to treat SPECIFIC symptoms of schizophrenia, autism and other cognitive disorders using computer exercises and group sessions.

Theory that values obedience and cooperation to the group and its values [contrast with individualism].

Humans and animals.

Part of CBT [cognitive behaviour therapy] used to enable ppts to improve their cognitive abilities once their medication has symptoms under control - e.g., with schizophrenics.

When comparing observed data with the expected, the critical value (whatever is used) tells the researcher whether the results are significant.

Yep, research comparing surveys from different cultures to look for differences and similarities.

Values, understanding, expectations, and way of life that a group broadly adheres to and passes onto the next generation.

Narcissism, lack of empathy, Machiavellian tendencies in an individual.

Theory that all events have a cause, and therefore an element of prediction (or probability), such that if X occurs, Y will happen. In psychology and philosophy it implies the rejection of FREE WILL.

Theory that criminal behaviour is learned through exposure to criminal norms.
[i.e., no one is born a criminal but becomes one through association.

Loss of public-self awareness that leads to socially inappropriate behaviour (regarding talking, swearing, sexuality, eating…)

Used for twins: non-identical as they come from two eggs (zygotes)

ECHOlalia =?> imitation of speech or phrase by another person

• autism, dementia = cognitive impairment

• young children = maturing and practising language, or just being annoying :)

A person who can identify with another person's emotions.
Compare with sympathy - I'm sorry for your loss.
Empathy - I understand, I lost my sister at a similar age…

Judgements made about another culture from the researcher's or writer's culture.
E.g., most American films :)))
Or British abroad - 'where's the fish and chip shops?' -
Comic, but also a serious matter when research has subtle ethnocentric values. E.g., West African slaves were deemed stupid because the grammar that they used in speaking English sounded childlike; recent research has noted that it follows the inflections and rules of their home languages (e.g., saying, good good, instead of very good).

Expressed emotion is the critical, hostile, and emotionally over-involved attitude that relatives have toward a family member with a disorder (autism, schizophrenia, etc)

The trait of sociability, impulsiveness, and talkativeness (from Eysenck's personality test, 1972)