Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology Part 1

the study of the structure of the body

the study of the function of the body

represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level)

represents the basic unit of all living things

a group of cells with similar or common function

a group of tissues with similar or common function

a group of organs with similar or common function

the entire body consisting of the various organ systems.

controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards

supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells

movement, support and produces heat

controls immediate responses to stimuli

controls long-term responses in body

internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells

defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system

exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues

ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes

filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products

produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction

condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits

adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis

monitors change in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to control center

receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response

cell or organ that receives information (output) from control center and produces a response (effect)

stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response

the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc.

the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level.

patient is erect, feet apart and palms facing anteriorly Cephalic = head

upper portion of head surrounding brain

face

neck

chest

armpit

point of shoulder

fleshy portion of shoulder

upper arm

forearm

front of elbow

wrist

hand

fingers or toes

region of trunk between diaphragm and pelvis

back

lower back

back of elbow

pelvis

anterior pelvis

junction of trunk and thighs (groin)

buttocks

thigh

front of knee

back of knee

anterior of lower leg (shin)

posterior of lower leg (calf)

ankle

foot

bottom of foot

(cephalic = cranial) = towards the head

(caudal) = away from the head

towards the front

towards the back

towards the midline

away from the midline

towards the point of attachment (limbs)

away from the point of attachment (limbs)

towards the surface (i.e., skin)

away from the surface

separates the body into right and left parts

median = separates the body into equal right and left parts

separates the body into unequal right and left parts

coronal = separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts

The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity.

The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity.

surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord.

includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.

is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.

two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the body.

which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs.

are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers.

which is closest to the organ, is called the visceral layer.

which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer.

serous membranes surrounding lungs

outer serous membrane surrounding lungs

inner serous membrane surrounding lungs

serous membranes surrounding heart

outer serous membrane surrounding heart

inner serous membrane surrounding heart

serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and urinary organs)

outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region
Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows
Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant

Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows
Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac
Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar
Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

cavity of mouth

cavity inside the digestive tract

cavity inside nose

cavity around eyes

cavity between eardrum and inner ear

cavity surrounding some types of joints

is anything that occupies space and has mass.

solid, liquid and gas.

They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules.

molecules are far apart there is a lot of motion.

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than gases.

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than liquids.

building blocks of matter; each element is unique in its atomic structure and has its own unique properties

building blocks or basic units of elements

the particles that make up an atom; i.e., protons, neutrons and electrons

positively charged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

uncharged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

negatively charged subatomic particle that resides in the energy levels (shells) of an atom

occur when one atoms gives electron(s) to another atom. When electrons are transferred, the atom that loses electrons becomes a cation and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion. The two atoms are then attracted to one another due the attraction of opposite charges.

occur when two atoms share electrons. Because they share electrons, the two atoms are held together.

are bonds where electrons are shared unequally. As a result, one side becomes slightly positively charged and the other side becomes slightly negatively charged (and we call this polar).

are bonds where electrons are shared equally; there is no separation of charge.

two atoms share 1 pair of electrons

two atoms share 2 pair of electrons

two atoms share 3 pair of electrons

a weak attraction between hydrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule) and the oxygen or nitrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule). Rather than holding atoms together within a molecule like covalent and ionic bonds do, hydrogen bonds typically occur between molecules or regions of a molecule. The attraction is due to the slight positive charge found on hydrogen that is in a polar covalent bond and the slight negative charge found on either oxygen or nitrogen that are also in a polar covalent bond.

are present initially.

are present after the reaction occurs

the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell (or body)

energy of particles in motion

stored energy (bond energy is potential)

reaction that releases energy (goes from high energy reactants to low energy products and excess energy is released)

reaction that requires energy (goes from low energy reactants to high energy products)

building of large molecules from smaller units (usually requires energy); A + B or AB

break down of large molecules into smaller units (usually releases energy); AB or A + B

exchange of atoms or between reactants (may either release or require energy);AB + CD or AC + BD

involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. This type of reaction is often classified as a special type of exchange reaction. Marieb also describes it as a type of decomposition reaction.

sum of all chemical reactions in the body (or cell).

metabolic activities that result in breaking down large molecules into smaller components

metabolic activities that result in build large molecules from smaller components .

contain carbon and hydrogen;

do not.

Water is polar which means that there is a partial positive charge near the hydrogens and a partial negative charge near the oxygen. The polarity of water makes it able to conduct an electrical current. It also makes it a good solvent because it can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds (by separating the molecules when the charges (partial for polar and whole for ionic) on this molecule are attracted to the partial charges on the water molecule). Things that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. Things that do not dissolve in water but are repelled by water are called hydrophobic.

hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds give water its fluidity. The tendency of water molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube).

water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid.

substance that releases H+ in water

substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water

ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water

the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined).

substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions.

is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7.

the pH decreases. PH<7 = acidic and pH>7 = basic.

represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen ion concentration.

the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water

the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water

the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides.

that dissolve well in water.

essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O).

energy and structural support.

are generally burned to produce energy.

either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support.

Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar).

are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol;

2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.