CompTIA A+ CertMike: Core 1 Exam 220-1101 (2023)
CompTIA A+ CertMike: Core 1 Exam 220-1101 (2023) provides detailed explanations to help you understand key concepts.
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Wiley B o ok s in the
CertMike Serie s
CompTIA ITF+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam FC0-U61
by Mike Chapple
(ISBN 9781119897811)
CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 1 Exam 220-1101
by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper
(ISBN 9781119898092)
CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 2 Exam 220-1102
by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper
(ISBN 9781119898122)
CompTIA Network+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam N10-008
by Mike Chapple and Craig Zacker
(ISBN 9781119898153)
CertMike Serie s
CompTIA ITF+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam FC0-U61
by Mike Chapple
(ISBN 9781119897811)
CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 1 Exam 220-1101
by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper
(ISBN 9781119898092)
CompTIA A+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Core 2 Exam 220-1102
by Mike Chapple and Mark Soper
(ISBN 9781119898122)
CompTIA Network+ CertMike: Prepare. Practice.
Pass the Test! Get Certified! Exam N10-008
by Mike Chapple and Craig Zacker
(ISBN 9781119898153)
CompTIA® ITF+ CertMike
Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
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CompTIA® ITF+ CertMike
Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
Exam FC0-U61
M ike Chap p l e
Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
Exam FC0-U61
M ike Chap p l e
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Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada and the United Kingdom.
ISBN: 978-1-119-89781-1
ISBN: 978-1-119-89783-5 (ebk.)
ISBN: 978-1-119-89782-8 (ebk.)
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-
copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on
the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/
permission.
Trademarks: WILEY, the Wiley logo, and the Sybex logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its
affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. CompTIA is a registered trademark
of The Computing Technology Industry Association, Inc. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they
make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically
disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should
consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or
disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of
profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department
within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic
formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022935720
Cover design: Wiley
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada and the United Kingdom.
ISBN: 978-1-119-89781-1
ISBN: 978-1-119-89783-5 (ebk.)
ISBN: 978-1-119-89782-8 (ebk.)
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-
copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on
the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/
permission.
Trademarks: WILEY, the Wiley logo, and the Sybex logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its
affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. CompTIA is a registered trademark
of The Computing Technology Industry Association, Inc. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they
make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically
disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should
consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or
disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of
profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department
within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic
formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022935720
Cover design: Wiley
Loading page 9...
To all of my students at Notre Dame. The energy, enthusiasm, and
experiences you bring to the classroom make me a better teacher and writer.
—Mike
experiences you bring to the classroom make me a better teacher and writer.
—Mike
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Acknowled gments
This book marks the start of a new test prep series called CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass
the Test! Get Certified!, and I’d first like to thank the people who helped shape the vision for
this series. The original idea was hatched over breakfast with two very supportive editors
from the Wiley team: Ken Brown and Jim Minatel. I’ve worked with both Jim and Ken on
many books over many years, and they’re both insightful industry experts who know what
it takes to produce a great book.
I’d also like to extend a special thank-you to my agent, Carole Jelen of Waterside Pro-
ductions. Carole is also an experienced industry pro who can deftly navigate the murky
waters of publishing. Carole is the one who pushed me to create my own series.
Of course, the creation of any book involves a tremendous amount of effort from
many people other than the author. I truly appreciate the work of Adaobi Obi Tulton, the
project editor. Adaobi and I have now worked together on many books, and she keeps the
train on the tracks! I’d also like to thank Audrey O’Shea, the technical editor, who provided
insightful advice and gave wonderful feedback throughout the book, and Archana Pra-
gash, production editor, who guided me through layouts, formatting, and final cleanup
to produce a great book. I would also like to thank the many behind-the-scenes contrib-
utors, including the graphics, production, and technical teams who make the book and
companion materials into a finished product.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, who supported me through the late evenings,
busy weekends, and long hours that a book like this requires to write, edit, and get to press.
This book marks the start of a new test prep series called CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass
the Test! Get Certified!, and I’d first like to thank the people who helped shape the vision for
this series. The original idea was hatched over breakfast with two very supportive editors
from the Wiley team: Ken Brown and Jim Minatel. I’ve worked with both Jim and Ken on
many books over many years, and they’re both insightful industry experts who know what
it takes to produce a great book.
I’d also like to extend a special thank-you to my agent, Carole Jelen of Waterside Pro-
ductions. Carole is also an experienced industry pro who can deftly navigate the murky
waters of publishing. Carole is the one who pushed me to create my own series.
Of course, the creation of any book involves a tremendous amount of effort from
many people other than the author. I truly appreciate the work of Adaobi Obi Tulton, the
project editor. Adaobi and I have now worked together on many books, and she keeps the
train on the tracks! I’d also like to thank Audrey O’Shea, the technical editor, who provided
insightful advice and gave wonderful feedback throughout the book, and Archana Pra-
gash, production editor, who guided me through layouts, formatting, and final cleanup
to produce a great book. I would also like to thank the many behind-the-scenes contrib-
utors, including the graphics, production, and technical teams who make the book and
companion materials into a finished product.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, who supported me through the late evenings,
busy weekends, and long hours that a book like this requires to write, edit, and get to press.
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Mike Chapple, Ph.D., is author of the best-selling CISSP (ISC)2 Certified Information Systems
Security Professional Official Study Guide (Sybex, 2021) and the CISSP (ISC)2 Official Practice
Tests (Sybex, 2021). He is an information technology professional with two decades of
experience in higher education, the private sector, and government.
Mike currently serves as Teaching Professor in the IT, Analytics, and Operations
department at the University of Notre Dame’s Mendoza College of Business, where he
teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on cybersecurity, cloud computing, data
management, and business analytics.
Before returning to Notre Dame, Mike served as executive vice president and chief
information officer of the Brand Institute, a Miami-based marketing consultancy. Mike also
spent four years in the information security research group at the National Security Agency
and served as an active duty intelligence officer in the U.S. Air Force.
Mike has written more than 25 books. He earned both his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from Notre Dame in computer science and engineering. Mike also holds an M.S. in com-
puter science from the University of Idaho and an MBA from Auburn University. Mike holds
the IT Fundamentals (ITF+), Cybersecurity Analyst+ (CySA+), Data+, Security+, Certified
Information Security Manager (CISM), Certified Cloud Security Professional (CCSP), and Cer-
tified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) certifications.
Learn more about Mike and his other security certification materials at his website,
CertMike.com.
Ab out the Author
Security Professional Official Study Guide (Sybex, 2021) and the CISSP (ISC)2 Official Practice
Tests (Sybex, 2021). He is an information technology professional with two decades of
experience in higher education, the private sector, and government.
Mike currently serves as Teaching Professor in the IT, Analytics, and Operations
department at the University of Notre Dame’s Mendoza College of Business, where he
teaches undergraduate and graduate courses on cybersecurity, cloud computing, data
management, and business analytics.
Before returning to Notre Dame, Mike served as executive vice president and chief
information officer of the Brand Institute, a Miami-based marketing consultancy. Mike also
spent four years in the information security research group at the National Security Agency
and served as an active duty intelligence officer in the U.S. Air Force.
Mike has written more than 25 books. He earned both his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from Notre Dame in computer science and engineering. Mike also holds an M.S. in com-
puter science from the University of Idaho and an MBA from Auburn University. Mike holds
the IT Fundamentals (ITF+), Cybersecurity Analyst+ (CySA+), Data+, Security+, Certified
Information Security Manager (CISM), Certified Cloud Security Professional (CCSP), and Cer-
tified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) certifications.
Learn more about Mike and his other security certification materials at his website,
CertMike.com.
Ab out the Author
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Audrey O’Shea holds CompTIA A+, ITF+, Network+, Security+, Project+, and other
industry certifications. The former owner of a computer consulting company, she holds
two degrees and a New York State teaching license. Audrey chose to become an edu-
cator to share her knowledge with the next wave of IT professionals. She has taught at the
college level, in technical schools, and adult seminars with courses ranging from Electrical
Theory and Practice for Energy Workers, to Microsoft Office, CompTIA A+, Introduction
to Cybersecurity, and CISCO certification. Audrey is a teacher, author, consultant, and
entrepreneur, and has helped many students learn what they need to know to pass their
certification exams.
Audrey has authored two technical books: A Geek Girl’s Guide to Electronics and the
Internet of Things (Wiley, 2020) and CompTIA A+ Complete Practice Tests, 3rd Edition (Wiley,
2022). She has also served as technical editor on two other books leading to CompTIA
certifications.
Audrey lives in upstate New York with her significant other and their fur babies. When
she isn’t behind a computer you can find her hiking in the Adirondack Mountains or kay-
aking on a lake somewhere.
Ab out the Technic al Editor
industry certifications. The former owner of a computer consulting company, she holds
two degrees and a New York State teaching license. Audrey chose to become an edu-
cator to share her knowledge with the next wave of IT professionals. She has taught at the
college level, in technical schools, and adult seminars with courses ranging from Electrical
Theory and Practice for Energy Workers, to Microsoft Office, CompTIA A+, Introduction
to Cybersecurity, and CISCO certification. Audrey is a teacher, author, consultant, and
entrepreneur, and has helped many students learn what they need to know to pass their
certification exams.
Audrey has authored two technical books: A Geek Girl’s Guide to Electronics and the
Internet of Things (Wiley, 2020) and CompTIA A+ Complete Practice Tests, 3rd Edition (Wiley,
2022). She has also served as technical editor on two other books leading to CompTIA
certifications.
Audrey lives in upstate New York with her significant other and their fur babies. When
she isn’t behind a computer you can find her hiking in the Adirondack Mountains or kay-
aking on a lake somewhere.
Ab out the Technic al Editor
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Introduction xv
PART I DOMAIN 1.0: IT CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY 1
CHAPTER 1 Notational Systems 3
CHAPTER 2 Data Types 11
CHAPTER 3 Computing Basics 19
CHAPTER 4 Value of Data 25
CHAPTER 5 Units of Measure 33
CHAPTER 6 Troubleshooting Methodology 41
PART II DOMAIN 2.0: INFRASTRUCTURE 49
CHAPTER 7 Input/Output Device Interfaces 51
CHAPTER 8 Installing Peripherals 61
CHAPTER 9 Internal Computing Components 69
CHAPTER 10 Internet Service Types 79
CHAPTER 11 Storage 85
CHAPTER 12 Computing Devices 95
CHAPTER 13 TCP/IP Networking 107
CHAPTER 14 Application Protocols 117
CHAPTER 15 Network Devices 123
CHAPTER 16 Wireless Networks 131
PART III DOMAIN 3.0: APPLICATIONS AND SOFTWARE 143
CHAPTER 17 Operating Systems 145
CHAPTER 18 Virtualization 153
CHAPTER 19 Filesystems 159
CHAPTER 20 Services and Processes 169
Contents
PART I DOMAIN 1.0: IT CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY 1
CHAPTER 1 Notational Systems 3
CHAPTER 2 Data Types 11
CHAPTER 3 Computing Basics 19
CHAPTER 4 Value of Data 25
CHAPTER 5 Units of Measure 33
CHAPTER 6 Troubleshooting Methodology 41
PART II DOMAIN 2.0: INFRASTRUCTURE 49
CHAPTER 7 Input/Output Device Interfaces 51
CHAPTER 8 Installing Peripherals 61
CHAPTER 9 Internal Computing Components 69
CHAPTER 10 Internet Service Types 79
CHAPTER 11 Storage 85
CHAPTER 12 Computing Devices 95
CHAPTER 13 TCP/IP Networking 107
CHAPTER 14 Application Protocols 117
CHAPTER 15 Network Devices 123
CHAPTER 16 Wireless Networks 131
PART III DOMAIN 3.0: APPLICATIONS AND SOFTWARE 143
CHAPTER 17 Operating Systems 145
CHAPTER 18 Virtualization 153
CHAPTER 19 Filesystems 159
CHAPTER 20 Services and Processes 169
Contents
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CHAPTER 21 Drivers, Utilities, and Interfaces 175
CHAPTER 22 Software Types 183
CHAPTER 23 Application Architecture and Delivery 193
CHAPTER 24 Web Browsers 199
CHAPTER 25 Application Concepts and Uses 211
PART IV DOMAIN 4.0: SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS 217
CHAPTER 26 Programming Languages 219
CHAPTER 27 Programming Organizational Techniques 227
CHAPTER 28 Logic Components 233
CHAPTER 29 Programming Concepts 239
PART V DOMAIN 5.0: DATABASE FUNDAMENTALS 249
CHAPTER 30 Database Concepts 251
CHAPTER 31 Database Structures 259
CHAPTER 32 Database Interfaces 269
PART VI DOMAIN 6.0: SECURITY 277
CHAPTER 33 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability 279
CHAPTER 34 Securing Devices 287
CHAPTER 35 Behavioral Security 293
CHAPTER 36 Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation 299
CHAPTER 37 Password Best Practices 313
CHAPTER 38 Encryption 319
CHAPTER 39 Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery 325
INDEX 331
x i v Contents
CHAPTER 22 Software Types 183
CHAPTER 23 Application Architecture and Delivery 193
CHAPTER 24 Web Browsers 199
CHAPTER 25 Application Concepts and Uses 211
PART IV DOMAIN 4.0: SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS 217
CHAPTER 26 Programming Languages 219
CHAPTER 27 Programming Organizational Techniques 227
CHAPTER 28 Logic Components 233
CHAPTER 29 Programming Concepts 239
PART V DOMAIN 5.0: DATABASE FUNDAMENTALS 249
CHAPTER 30 Database Concepts 251
CHAPTER 31 Database Structures 259
CHAPTER 32 Database Interfaces 269
PART VI DOMAIN 6.0: SECURITY 277
CHAPTER 33 Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability 279
CHAPTER 34 Securing Devices 287
CHAPTER 35 Behavioral Security 293
CHAPTER 36 Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation 299
CHAPTER 37 Password Best Practices 313
CHAPTER 38 Encryption 319
CHAPTER 39 Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery 325
INDEX 331
x i v Contents
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If you’re preparing to take the ITF+ (IT Fundamentals+) exam, you might find yourself
overwhelmed with information. This exam covers a very broad range of topics, and it’s pos-
sible to spend weeks studying each one of them. Fortunately, that’s not necessary!
As part of the CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! series, this book
is designed to help you focus on the specific knowledge that you’ll need to pass the ITF+
exam. CompTIA publishes a detailed list of exam objectives, and this book is organized
around those objectives. Each chapter clearly states the single objective that it covers and
then, in a few pages, covers the material you need to know about that objective.
You’ll find two important things at the end of each chapter: CertMike Exam Essentials
and Practice Questions. The CertMike Exam Essentials distill the major points from the
chapter into just a few bullet points. Reviewing these CertMike Exam Essentials is a great
way to prepare yourself right before taking the exam.
I’ve also recorded an audio version of the CertMike Exam Essentials that you can access
online at www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep after registering and logging on.
You can listen to the audio review when you’re in the car, at the gym, or mowing the lawn!
Each chapter concludes with two practice questions that are designed to give you a
taste of what it’s like to take the exam. You’ll find that they’re written in the same style as
the ITF+ exam questions and have very detailed explanations to help you understand the
correct answer. Be sure to take your time and thoroughly study these questions.
Finally, the book’s online test bank (www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep)
includes a full-length practice exam that you can use to assess your knowledge when
you’re ready to take the test. Good luck on the ITF+ exam!
NOTE
Don’t just study the questions and answers! The questions on the actual exam
will be different from the practice questions included in this book. The exam is
designed to test your knowledge of a concept or objective, so use this book to
learn the objectives behind the questions.
THE ITF+ EXAM
The ITF+ exam is designed to be a vendor-neutral certification for those seeking to enter
the information technology field. CompTIA recommends this certification for three types
of people:
▶ Students considering starting a career in information technology
▶ Professionals working in fields that require an understanding of information
technology
▶ Sales, marketing, and operations professionals in IT-focused companies
Introdu c tion
overwhelmed with information. This exam covers a very broad range of topics, and it’s pos-
sible to spend weeks studying each one of them. Fortunately, that’s not necessary!
As part of the CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified! series, this book
is designed to help you focus on the specific knowledge that you’ll need to pass the ITF+
exam. CompTIA publishes a detailed list of exam objectives, and this book is organized
around those objectives. Each chapter clearly states the single objective that it covers and
then, in a few pages, covers the material you need to know about that objective.
You’ll find two important things at the end of each chapter: CertMike Exam Essentials
and Practice Questions. The CertMike Exam Essentials distill the major points from the
chapter into just a few bullet points. Reviewing these CertMike Exam Essentials is a great
way to prepare yourself right before taking the exam.
I’ve also recorded an audio version of the CertMike Exam Essentials that you can access
online at www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep after registering and logging on.
You can listen to the audio review when you’re in the car, at the gym, or mowing the lawn!
Each chapter concludes with two practice questions that are designed to give you a
taste of what it’s like to take the exam. You’ll find that they’re written in the same style as
the ITF+ exam questions and have very detailed explanations to help you understand the
correct answer. Be sure to take your time and thoroughly study these questions.
Finally, the book’s online test bank (www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep)
includes a full-length practice exam that you can use to assess your knowledge when
you’re ready to take the test. Good luck on the ITF+ exam!
NOTE
Don’t just study the questions and answers! The questions on the actual exam
will be different from the practice questions included in this book. The exam is
designed to test your knowledge of a concept or objective, so use this book to
learn the objectives behind the questions.
THE ITF+ EXAM
The ITF+ exam is designed to be a vendor-neutral certification for those seeking to enter
the information technology field. CompTIA recommends this certification for three types
of people:
▶ Students considering starting a career in information technology
▶ Professionals working in fields that require an understanding of information
technology
▶ Sales, marketing, and operations professionals in IT-focused companies
Introdu c tion
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x v i I n t r o d u c t i o n
The exam covers six major domains of knowledge:
1. IT Concepts and Terminology
2. Infrastructure
3. Applications and Software
4. Software Development Concepts
5. Database Fundamentals
6. Security
These six areas include a range of topics, from installing printers to securing networks,
while focusing heavily on the basic knowledge expected of all IT professionals. That’s why
CompTIA recommends the ITF+ certification for those in any IT-related field.
The ITF+ exam uses only standard multiple-choice questions. Unlike other CompTIA
exams, you won’t find performance-based questions (PBQs) on the ITF+ exam. This exam is
designed to be straightforward and not to trick you. If you know the material in this book,
you will pass the exam.
The exam costs $130 in the United States, with roughly equivalent prices in other loca-
tions around the globe. More details about the ITF+ exam and how to take it can be found
at www.comptia.org/certifications/it-fundamentals.
You’ll have 50 minutes to take the exam and will be asked to answer up to 75 questions
during that time period. Your exam will be scored on a scale ranging from 100 to 900, with a
passing score of 650.
NOTE
CompTIA frequently does what is called item seeding, which is the practice of
including unscored questions on exams. It does so to gather psychometric data,
which is then used when developing new versions of the exam. Before you take
the exam, you will be told that your exam may include these unscored ques-
tions. So, if you come across a question that does not appear to map to any of the
exam objectives— or for that matter, does not appear to belong in the exam—it
is likely a seeded question. You never really know whether or not a question is
seeded, however, so always make your best effort to answer every question.
Taking the Exam
Once you are fully prepared to take the exam, you can visit the CompTIA website to pur-
chase your exam voucher:
https://store.comptia.org
Currently, CompTIA offers two options for taking the exam: an in-person exam at a testing
center and an at-home exam that you take on your own computer.
TIP
This book includes a coupon that you may use to save 10 percent on your
CompTIA exam registration.
The exam covers six major domains of knowledge:
1. IT Concepts and Terminology
2. Infrastructure
3. Applications and Software
4. Software Development Concepts
5. Database Fundamentals
6. Security
These six areas include a range of topics, from installing printers to securing networks,
while focusing heavily on the basic knowledge expected of all IT professionals. That’s why
CompTIA recommends the ITF+ certification for those in any IT-related field.
The ITF+ exam uses only standard multiple-choice questions. Unlike other CompTIA
exams, you won’t find performance-based questions (PBQs) on the ITF+ exam. This exam is
designed to be straightforward and not to trick you. If you know the material in this book,
you will pass the exam.
The exam costs $130 in the United States, with roughly equivalent prices in other loca-
tions around the globe. More details about the ITF+ exam and how to take it can be found
at www.comptia.org/certifications/it-fundamentals.
You’ll have 50 minutes to take the exam and will be asked to answer up to 75 questions
during that time period. Your exam will be scored on a scale ranging from 100 to 900, with a
passing score of 650.
NOTE
CompTIA frequently does what is called item seeding, which is the practice of
including unscored questions on exams. It does so to gather psychometric data,
which is then used when developing new versions of the exam. Before you take
the exam, you will be told that your exam may include these unscored ques-
tions. So, if you come across a question that does not appear to map to any of the
exam objectives— or for that matter, does not appear to belong in the exam—it
is likely a seeded question. You never really know whether or not a question is
seeded, however, so always make your best effort to answer every question.
Taking the Exam
Once you are fully prepared to take the exam, you can visit the CompTIA website to pur-
chase your exam voucher:
https://store.comptia.org
Currently, CompTIA offers two options for taking the exam: an in-person exam at a testing
center and an at-home exam that you take on your own computer.
TIP
This book includes a coupon that you may use to save 10 percent on your
CompTIA exam registration.
Loading page 19...
I n t r o d u c t i o n x v i i
In- Person Exams
CompTIA partners with Pearson VUE’s testing centers, so your next step will be to locate a
testing center near you. In the United States, you can do this based on your address or your
ZIP code, while non-U.S. test takers may find it easier to enter their city and country. You
can search for a test center near you at the Pearson Vue website, where you will need to
navigate to “Find a test center”:
www.pearsonvue.com/comptia
Now that you know where you’d like to take the exam, simply set up a Pearson VUE test-
ing account and schedule an exam on their site.
On the day of the test, take two forms of identification, and make sure to show up
with plenty of time before the exam starts. Remember that you will not be able to take
your notes, electronic devices (including smartphones and watches), or other materials
in with you.
At- Home Exams
CompTIA began offering online exam proctoring in 2020 in response to the coronavirus
pandemic. As of the time this book went to press, the at-home testing option was still
available and appears likely to continue. Candidates using this approach will take the exam
at their home or office and be proctored over a webcam by a remote proctor.
Due to the rapidly changing nature of the at-home testing experience, candidates wish-
ing to pursue this option should check the CompTIA website for the latest details.
After the ITF+ Exam
Once you have taken the exam, you will be notified of your score immediately, so you’ll
know if you passed the test right away. You should keep track of your score report with
your exam registration records and the email address you used to register for the exam.
After you earn the ITF+ certification, you’re certified for life! Unlike many other CompTIA
certifications that must be renewed on a periodic basis, the ITF+ certification is permanent
and remains with you throughout your career.
Many people who earn the ITF+ credential use it as a stepping-stone to earning other cer-
tifications in their areas of interest. Those interested in technical support roles pursue the A+
certification, those interested in networking work toward the Network+ credential, and the
Security+ certification is a gateway to a career in cybersecurity.
WHAT DOES THIS BOOK COVER?
This book covers everything you need to know to pass the ITF+ exam. It is organized into
six parts, each corresponding to one of the six ITF+ domains.
Part I: Domain 1.0: IT Concepts and Terminology
Chapter 1: Notational Systems
Chapter 2: Data Types
In- Person Exams
CompTIA partners with Pearson VUE’s testing centers, so your next step will be to locate a
testing center near you. In the United States, you can do this based on your address or your
ZIP code, while non-U.S. test takers may find it easier to enter their city and country. You
can search for a test center near you at the Pearson Vue website, where you will need to
navigate to “Find a test center”:
www.pearsonvue.com/comptia
Now that you know where you’d like to take the exam, simply set up a Pearson VUE test-
ing account and schedule an exam on their site.
On the day of the test, take two forms of identification, and make sure to show up
with plenty of time before the exam starts. Remember that you will not be able to take
your notes, electronic devices (including smartphones and watches), or other materials
in with you.
At- Home Exams
CompTIA began offering online exam proctoring in 2020 in response to the coronavirus
pandemic. As of the time this book went to press, the at-home testing option was still
available and appears likely to continue. Candidates using this approach will take the exam
at their home or office and be proctored over a webcam by a remote proctor.
Due to the rapidly changing nature of the at-home testing experience, candidates wish-
ing to pursue this option should check the CompTIA website for the latest details.
After the ITF+ Exam
Once you have taken the exam, you will be notified of your score immediately, so you’ll
know if you passed the test right away. You should keep track of your score report with
your exam registration records and the email address you used to register for the exam.
After you earn the ITF+ certification, you’re certified for life! Unlike many other CompTIA
certifications that must be renewed on a periodic basis, the ITF+ certification is permanent
and remains with you throughout your career.
Many people who earn the ITF+ credential use it as a stepping-stone to earning other cer-
tifications in their areas of interest. Those interested in technical support roles pursue the A+
certification, those interested in networking work toward the Network+ credential, and the
Security+ certification is a gateway to a career in cybersecurity.
WHAT DOES THIS BOOK COVER?
This book covers everything you need to know to pass the ITF+ exam. It is organized into
six parts, each corresponding to one of the six ITF+ domains.
Part I: Domain 1.0: IT Concepts and Terminology
Chapter 1: Notational Systems
Chapter 2: Data Types
Loading page 20...
x v i i i I n t r o d u c t i o n
Chapter 3: Computing Basics
Chapter 4: Value of Data
Chapter 5: Units of Measure
Chapter 6: Troubleshooting
Part II: Domain 2.0: Infrastructure
Chapter 7: Input/Output Device Interfaces
Chapter 8: Installing Peripherals
Chapter 9: Internal Computing Components
Chapter 10: Internet Service Types
Chapter 11: Storage
Chapter 12: Computing Devices
Chapter 13: TCP/IP Networking
Chapter 14: Application Protocols
Chapter 15: Network Devices
Chapter 16: Wireless Networks
Part III: Domain 3.0: Applications and Software
Chapter 17: Operating Systems
Chapter 18: Virtualization
Chapter 19: Filesystems
Chapter 20: Services and Processes
Chapter 21: Drivers, Utilities, and Interfaces
Chapter 22: Software Types
Chapter 23: Application Architecture and Delivery
Chapter 24: Web Browsers
Chapter 25: Application Concepts and Uses
Part IV: Domain 4.0: Software Development Concepts
Chapter 26: Programming Languages
Chapter 27: Programming Organizational Techniques
Chapter 28: Logic Components
Chapter 29: Programming Concepts
Chapter 3: Computing Basics
Chapter 4: Value of Data
Chapter 5: Units of Measure
Chapter 6: Troubleshooting
Part II: Domain 2.0: Infrastructure
Chapter 7: Input/Output Device Interfaces
Chapter 8: Installing Peripherals
Chapter 9: Internal Computing Components
Chapter 10: Internet Service Types
Chapter 11: Storage
Chapter 12: Computing Devices
Chapter 13: TCP/IP Networking
Chapter 14: Application Protocols
Chapter 15: Network Devices
Chapter 16: Wireless Networks
Part III: Domain 3.0: Applications and Software
Chapter 17: Operating Systems
Chapter 18: Virtualization
Chapter 19: Filesystems
Chapter 20: Services and Processes
Chapter 21: Drivers, Utilities, and Interfaces
Chapter 22: Software Types
Chapter 23: Application Architecture and Delivery
Chapter 24: Web Browsers
Chapter 25: Application Concepts and Uses
Part IV: Domain 4.0: Software Development Concepts
Chapter 26: Programming Languages
Chapter 27: Programming Organizational Techniques
Chapter 28: Logic Components
Chapter 29: Programming Concepts
Loading page 21...
I n t r o d u c t i o n x i x
Part V: Domain 5.0: Database Fundamentals
Chapter 30: Database Concepts
Chapter 31: Database Structures
Chapter 32: Database Interfaces
Part VI: Domain 6.0: Security
Chapter 33: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability
Chapter 34: Securing Devices
Chapter 35: Behavioral Security
Chapter 36: Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation
Chapter 37: Password Best Practices
Chapter 38: Encryption
Chapter 39: Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery
CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
Series Elements
Each book in the CertMike Get Certified series uses a number of common elements to help
you prepare. These include the following:
Exam Tips Throughout each chapter, I’ve sprinkled practical exam tips that help
focus your reading on topics that are particularly confusing or important to understand
for the exam.
CertMike Exam Essentials The exam essentials focus on major exam topics and
critical knowledge that you should take into the test. The exam essentials focus on the
exam objectives provided by CompTIA.
Practice Questions Two questions at the end of each chapter help you assess your
knowledge and if you are ready to take the exam based on your knowledge of that
chapter’s topics.
Practice Exam and Audio Review
This book comes with online study tools: a practice exam and audio review to help you
prepare for the exam.
NOTE
Go to www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep to register and gain access to
the online study tools.
Part V: Domain 5.0: Database Fundamentals
Chapter 30: Database Concepts
Chapter 31: Database Structures
Chapter 32: Database Interfaces
Part VI: Domain 6.0: Security
Chapter 33: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability
Chapter 34: Securing Devices
Chapter 35: Behavioral Security
Chapter 36: Authentication, Authorization, Accounting, and Nonrepudiation
Chapter 37: Password Best Practices
Chapter 38: Encryption
Chapter 39: Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery
CertMike: Prepare. Practice. Pass the Test! Get Certified!
Series Elements
Each book in the CertMike Get Certified series uses a number of common elements to help
you prepare. These include the following:
Exam Tips Throughout each chapter, I’ve sprinkled practical exam tips that help
focus your reading on topics that are particularly confusing or important to understand
for the exam.
CertMike Exam Essentials The exam essentials focus on major exam topics and
critical knowledge that you should take into the test. The exam essentials focus on the
exam objectives provided by CompTIA.
Practice Questions Two questions at the end of each chapter help you assess your
knowledge and if you are ready to take the exam based on your knowledge of that
chapter’s topics.
Practice Exam and Audio Review
This book comes with online study tools: a practice exam and audio review to help you
prepare for the exam.
NOTE
Go to www.wiley.com/go/sybextestprep to register and gain access to
the online study tools.
Loading page 22...
x x I n t r o d u c t i o n
Practice Exam
The book includes a practice exam. You can test your knowledge of the ITF+ objectives that
are covered in the chapters in their entirety or randomized. It’s your choice!
Audio Review
I’ve recorded an audio review where I read each of the 39 sets of CertMike Exam Essentials.
This review provides a helpful recap of the main topics covered on the exam, which you
can listen to while you’re commuting, working out, or relaxing.
NOTE
Like all exams, the ITF+ certification from CompTIA is updated periodically and
may eventually be retired or replaced. At some point after CompTIA is no longer
offering this exam, the old editions of our books and online tools will be retired.
If you have purchased this book after the exam was retired, or are attempting
to register in the Sybex online learning environment after the exam was retired,
please know that we make no guarantees that this exam’s online Sybex tools will
be available once the exam is no longer available.
EXAM FC0-U61 EXAM OBJECTIVES
CompTIA goes to great lengths to ensure that its certification programs accurately reflect
the IT industry’s best practices. They do this by establishing committees for each of its
exam programs. Each committee consists of a small group of IT professionals, training
providers, and publishers who are responsible for establishing the exam’s baseline compe-
tency level and who determine the appropriate target-audience level.
Once these factors are determined, CompTIA shares this information with a group of
hand-selected subject matter experts (SMEs). These folks are the true brainpower behind
the certification program. The SMEs review the committee’s findings, refine them, and shape
them into the objectives that follow this section. CompTIA calls this process a job-task anal-
ysis (JTA).
Finally, CompTIA conducts a survey to ensure that the objectives and weightings truly
reflect job requirements. Only then can the SMEs go to work writing the hundreds of ques-
tions needed for the exam. Even so, they have to go back to the drawing board for further
refinements in many cases before the exam is ready to go live in its final state. Rest assured
that the content you’re about to learn will serve you long after you take the exam.
CompTIA also publishes relative weightings for each of the exam’s objectives. The follow-
ing table lists the six ITF+ objective domains and the extent to which they are represented
on the exam.
Practice Exam
The book includes a practice exam. You can test your knowledge of the ITF+ objectives that
are covered in the chapters in their entirety or randomized. It’s your choice!
Audio Review
I’ve recorded an audio review where I read each of the 39 sets of CertMike Exam Essentials.
This review provides a helpful recap of the main topics covered on the exam, which you
can listen to while you’re commuting, working out, or relaxing.
NOTE
Like all exams, the ITF+ certification from CompTIA is updated periodically and
may eventually be retired or replaced. At some point after CompTIA is no longer
offering this exam, the old editions of our books and online tools will be retired.
If you have purchased this book after the exam was retired, or are attempting
to register in the Sybex online learning environment after the exam was retired,
please know that we make no guarantees that this exam’s online Sybex tools will
be available once the exam is no longer available.
EXAM FC0-U61 EXAM OBJECTIVES
CompTIA goes to great lengths to ensure that its certification programs accurately reflect
the IT industry’s best practices. They do this by establishing committees for each of its
exam programs. Each committee consists of a small group of IT professionals, training
providers, and publishers who are responsible for establishing the exam’s baseline compe-
tency level and who determine the appropriate target-audience level.
Once these factors are determined, CompTIA shares this information with a group of
hand-selected subject matter experts (SMEs). These folks are the true brainpower behind
the certification program. The SMEs review the committee’s findings, refine them, and shape
them into the objectives that follow this section. CompTIA calls this process a job-task anal-
ysis (JTA).
Finally, CompTIA conducts a survey to ensure that the objectives and weightings truly
reflect job requirements. Only then can the SMEs go to work writing the hundreds of ques-
tions needed for the exam. Even so, they have to go back to the drawing board for further
refinements in many cases before the exam is ready to go live in its final state. Rest assured
that the content you’re about to learn will serve you long after you take the exam.
CompTIA also publishes relative weightings for each of the exam’s objectives. The follow-
ing table lists the six ITF+ objective domains and the extent to which they are represented
on the exam.
Loading page 23...
I n t r o d u c t i o n x x i
Domain % of Exam
1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology 17%
2.0 Infrastructure 22%
3.0 Applications and Software 18%
4.0 Software Development Concepts 12%
5.0 Database Fundamentals 11%
6.0 Security 20%
FC0-U61 CERTIFICATION EXAM
OBJECTIVE MAP
Objective Chapter
1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology
1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems 1
1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their
characteristics
2
1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing 3
1.4 Explain the value of data and information 4
1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure 5
1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology 6
2.0 Infrastructure
2.1 Classify common types of input/output device interfaces 7
2.2 Given a scenario, set up and install common peripheral devices to
a laptop/PC
8
Domain % of Exam
1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology 17%
2.0 Infrastructure 22%
3.0 Applications and Software 18%
4.0 Software Development Concepts 12%
5.0 Database Fundamentals 11%
6.0 Security 20%
FC0-U61 CERTIFICATION EXAM
OBJECTIVE MAP
Objective Chapter
1.0 IT Concepts and Terminology
1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems 1
1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their
characteristics
2
1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing 3
1.4 Explain the value of data and information 4
1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure 5
1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology 6
2.0 Infrastructure
2.1 Classify common types of input/output device interfaces 7
2.2 Given a scenario, set up and install common peripheral devices to
a laptop/PC
8
Loading page 24...
x x i i I n t r o d u c t i o n
Objective Chapter
2.3 Explain the purpose of common internal computing components 9
2.4 Compare and contrast common Internet service types 10
2.5 Compare and contrast storage types 11
2.6 Compare and contrast common computing devices and their
purposes
12
2.7 Explain basic networking concepts 13, 14, 15
2.8 Given a scenario, install, configure, and secure a basic wireless
network
16
3.0 Applications and Software
3.1 Explain the purpose of operating systems 17, 18
3.2 Compare and contrast components of an operating system 19, 20, 21
3.3 Explain the purpose and proper use of software 22
3.4 Explain methods of application architecture and delivery models 23
3.5 Given a scenario, configure and use web browsers 24
3.6 Compare and contrast general application concepts and uses 25
4.0 Software Development Concepts
4.1 Compare and contrast programming language categories 26
4.2 Given a scenario, use programming organizational techniques
and interpret logic
27, 28
4.3 Explain the purpose and use of programming concepts 29
5.0 Database Fundamentals
5.1 Explain database concepts and the purpose of a database 30
5.2 Compare and contrast various database structures 31
Objective Chapter
2.3 Explain the purpose of common internal computing components 9
2.4 Compare and contrast common Internet service types 10
2.5 Compare and contrast storage types 11
2.6 Compare and contrast common computing devices and their
purposes
12
2.7 Explain basic networking concepts 13, 14, 15
2.8 Given a scenario, install, configure, and secure a basic wireless
network
16
3.0 Applications and Software
3.1 Explain the purpose of operating systems 17, 18
3.2 Compare and contrast components of an operating system 19, 20, 21
3.3 Explain the purpose and proper use of software 22
3.4 Explain methods of application architecture and delivery models 23
3.5 Given a scenario, configure and use web browsers 24
3.6 Compare and contrast general application concepts and uses 25
4.0 Software Development Concepts
4.1 Compare and contrast programming language categories 26
4.2 Given a scenario, use programming organizational techniques
and interpret logic
27, 28
4.3 Explain the purpose and use of programming concepts 29
5.0 Database Fundamentals
5.1 Explain database concepts and the purpose of a database 30
5.2 Compare and contrast various database structures 31
Loading page 25...
I n t r o d u c t i o n x x i i i
Objective Chapter
5.3 Summarize methods used to interface with databases 32
6.0 Security
6.1 Summarize confidentiality, integrity, and availability concerns 33
6.2 Explain methods to secure devices and best practices 34
6.3 Summarize behavioral security concepts 35
6.4 Compare and contrast authentication, authorization, accounting,
and nonrepudiation concepts
36
6.5 Explain password best practices 37
6.6 Explain common uses of encryption 38
6.7 Explain business continuity concepts 39
NOTE
Exam objectives are subject to change at any time without prior notice and at
CompTIA’s discretion. Please visit CompTIA’s website (www.comptia.org) for
the most current listing of exam objectives.
HOW TO CONTACT THE PUBLISHER
If you believe you’ve found a mistake in this book, please bring it to our attention. At John
Wiley & Sons, we understand how important it is to provide our customers with accurate
content, but even with our best efforts an error may occur. In order to submit your possible
errata, please email it to our Customer Service Team at wileysupport@wiley.com with
the subject line “Possible Book Errata Submission.”
Objective Chapter
5.3 Summarize methods used to interface with databases 32
6.0 Security
6.1 Summarize confidentiality, integrity, and availability concerns 33
6.2 Explain methods to secure devices and best practices 34
6.3 Summarize behavioral security concepts 35
6.4 Compare and contrast authentication, authorization, accounting,
and nonrepudiation concepts
36
6.5 Explain password best practices 37
6.6 Explain common uses of encryption 38
6.7 Explain business continuity concepts 39
NOTE
Exam objectives are subject to change at any time without prior notice and at
CompTIA’s discretion. Please visit CompTIA’s website (www.comptia.org) for
the most current listing of exam objectives.
HOW TO CONTACT THE PUBLISHER
If you believe you’ve found a mistake in this book, please bring it to our attention. At John
Wiley & Sons, we understand how important it is to provide our customers with accurate
content, but even with our best efforts an error may occur. In order to submit your possible
errata, please email it to our Customer Service Team at wileysupport@wiley.com with
the subject line “Possible Book Errata Submission.”
Loading page 26...
Loading page 27...
PART I
Domain 1.0: IT
Concepts and
Terminology
Chapter 1 Notational Systems
Chapter 2 Data Types
Chapter 3 Computing Basics
Chapter 4 Value of Data
Chapter 5 Units of Measure
Chapter 6 Troubleshooting Methodology
IT Concepts and Terminology is the first domain of CompTIA’s ITF+ exam. It provides
the foundational knowledge that anyone in information technology needs to under-
stand as they begin their careers. This domain has six objectives:
1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems
1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their
characteristics
1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing
1.4 Explain the value of data and information
1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure
1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology
Questions from this domain make up 17% of the questions on the ITF+ exam, so you
should expect to see approximately 13 questions on your test covering the material in
this part.
Domain 1.0: IT
Concepts and
Terminology
Chapter 1 Notational Systems
Chapter 2 Data Types
Chapter 3 Computing Basics
Chapter 4 Value of Data
Chapter 5 Units of Measure
Chapter 6 Troubleshooting Methodology
IT Concepts and Terminology is the first domain of CompTIA’s ITF+ exam. It provides
the foundational knowledge that anyone in information technology needs to under-
stand as they begin their careers. This domain has six objectives:
1.1 Compare and contrast notational systems
1.2 Compare and contrast fundamental data types and their
characteristics
1.3 Illustrate the basics of computing and processing
1.4 Explain the value of data and information
1.5 Compare and contrast common units of measure
1.6 Explain the troubleshooting methodology
Questions from this domain make up 17% of the questions on the ITF+ exam, so you
should expect to see approximately 13 questions on your test covering the material in
this part.
Loading page 28...
Loading page 29...
CHAPTER 1
Notational Systems
Objective 1.1: Compare
and contrast notational
systems
Computers are designed to store and manipulate data in binary
form, but that format isn’t often convenient or appropriate for humans
or software applications. Notational systems provide us with ways to use
binary data storage technologies to represent numbers, text, and other
data formats.
In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.1,
including the following topics:
▶ Binary
▶ Hexadecimal
▶ Decimal
▶ Data representation
STORING DATA
As we dive into the world of information technology, it’s important to understand how
computers store and work with data. Let’s begin that discussion by talking about the
basic units of storage in a computer system.
Binary Data
You’ve probably heard that computers work with binary data, or data that is stored
as simply 0s and 1s. Everything that happens inside a computer system uses
Notational Systems
Objective 1.1: Compare
and contrast notational
systems
Computers are designed to store and manipulate data in binary
form, but that format isn’t often convenient or appropriate for humans
or software applications. Notational systems provide us with ways to use
binary data storage technologies to represent numbers, text, and other
data formats.
In this chapter, you’ll learn everything you need to know about ITF+ objective 1.1,
including the following topics:
▶ Binary
▶ Hexadecimal
▶ Decimal
▶ Data representation
STORING DATA
As we dive into the world of information technology, it’s important to understand how
computers store and work with data. Let’s begin that discussion by talking about the
basic units of storage in a computer system.
Binary Data
You’ve probably heard that computers work with binary data, or data that is stored
as simply 0s and 1s. Everything that happens inside a computer system uses
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4 C h a p t e r 1 • N o t a t i o n a l S y s t e m s
combinations of 0s and 1s. From the operating system and software that we run to our
Microsoft Word documents or even a video file, everything is encoded in binary format.
The reason for this is that computers can easily use this binary format to store data on disk,
keep it in memory, or send it over a network.
The basic unit of binary storage in any computer system is the bit. A bit is a single binary
digit that can be either 1 or 0. Those are the only two possible values for a bit. You can’t put
the number 2 or the letter Z in a bit. It can only be a 1 or a 0, as shown in Figure 1.1.
When we store data on a magnetic hard drive, the computer divides the drive up into
billions of tiny little spaces, each designed to store a single bit. If the value of the bit is 1, the
computer places a magnetic charge in the location used by that bit. If the value of the bit is
0, the computer leaves no magnetic charge in that location.
When data is stored on a solid-state drive (SSD) or in memory, the process works the same
way but using electricity instead of magnetism. If the value of a bit in memory is 1, a small
electrical charge changes the value in that memory location to the “on” position. If the value
of the bit is 0, the value in that position is set to the “off” position.
Now, computers may think in 0s and 1s, but that’s not the way that we human beings
think. We’d much prefer to think of our data in terms of letters and numbers! Computers
store the data that we’re more familiar with by combining multiple bits together.
If we have 2 bits of data, we can use them together to represent four different values, as
shown in Figure 1.2.
We could use the 2-bit values in Figure 1.2 to store whole numbers between 0 and 3. We
simply assign each of the 2-bit binary possibilities a whole-number equivalent. Table 1.1
shows the standard conversion for these 2-bit values.
F I G U R E 1 . 1 A single bit can only hold two values: 0 and 1.
F I G U R E 1 . 2 Two bits can hold four possible values.
combinations of 0s and 1s. From the operating system and software that we run to our
Microsoft Word documents or even a video file, everything is encoded in binary format.
The reason for this is that computers can easily use this binary format to store data on disk,
keep it in memory, or send it over a network.
The basic unit of binary storage in any computer system is the bit. A bit is a single binary
digit that can be either 1 or 0. Those are the only two possible values for a bit. You can’t put
the number 2 or the letter Z in a bit. It can only be a 1 or a 0, as shown in Figure 1.1.
When we store data on a magnetic hard drive, the computer divides the drive up into
billions of tiny little spaces, each designed to store a single bit. If the value of the bit is 1, the
computer places a magnetic charge in the location used by that bit. If the value of the bit is
0, the computer leaves no magnetic charge in that location.
When data is stored on a solid-state drive (SSD) or in memory, the process works the same
way but using electricity instead of magnetism. If the value of a bit in memory is 1, a small
electrical charge changes the value in that memory location to the “on” position. If the value
of the bit is 0, the value in that position is set to the “off” position.
Now, computers may think in 0s and 1s, but that’s not the way that we human beings
think. We’d much prefer to think of our data in terms of letters and numbers! Computers
store the data that we’re more familiar with by combining multiple bits together.
If we have 2 bits of data, we can use them together to represent four different values, as
shown in Figure 1.2.
We could use the 2-bit values in Figure 1.2 to store whole numbers between 0 and 3. We
simply assign each of the 2-bit binary possibilities a whole-number equivalent. Table 1.1
shows the standard conversion for these 2-bit values.
F I G U R E 1 . 1 A single bit can only hold two values: 0 and 1.
F I G U R E 1 . 2 Two bits can hold four possible values.
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