Criminal Justice Administration Comprehensive Doctoral Review Examination

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Comprehensive Doctoral Review Examination
Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Business Administration (or Philosophy)
By
“YOUR NAME”
Healthcare Administration
Criminal Justice Administration
In the context of your doctoral research on "The Impact of Privatization on the Quality of
Healthcare in Prisons," discuss how reductionism, as a theoretical framework, can be applied to
understand the various components of healthcare quality within correctional facilities. In your
response, address the three key aspects of reductionism—ontological reductionism,
methodological reductionism, and theory reductionism—and explain how each will contribute to
your research design. Additionally, how can qualitative research methods be utilized to gather
data on inmate perceptions of healthcare quality, and what implications do these findings have
for the broader theoretical understanding of privatization in correctional healthcare?
Word Count Requirement: 1500–2000 words

2
Theory
Part 1
In research, theory refers to defined or proposed ways through which researchers are able
to make sense of concepts or situations. It is through a theory that researchers are able to present
reliable solutions to a problem (Udo-Akang, 2012). Theory can be viewed as a generalization
that is used to explain a phenomenon in line with the reasons why it occurs and how it occurs.
General statements that are used to explain the cause or effect of a phenomenon are based on
specific theoretical frameworks (Stam, 2010). A theory is a powerful tool through which
researchers connect events and observations into a single unified web. The relationship among
the statements of a theory defines the power of the theory as a basis upon which problems are
solved and phenomena are understood (Harlow, 2009). A theory plays an important function in
explaining, describing, controlling or predicting phenomena in different or divergent contexts
(Udo-Akang, 2012).
The interactions of the various variables of phenomena constitute a theoretical
framework. Theory can also be viewed as a system or a group of laws or rules and assumptions
that are used to explain the implications of phenomena (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). Theories are
used to make inferences or conclusions on a specific issue. The generalizations that are presented
within theoretical frameworks often indicate new research observations (Wacker, 1998). These
observations are constituted within a theory if they can be tested through scientific inquiry and if
they are applicable in predicting or explaining certain phenomena. When knowledge is organized

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in a systematic manner, it also becomes and constitutes a theory. Theories are specifically
applied to solve problems in the real world (Stam, 2010).
Credible or reliable research should be grounded on a specific theory or theories. This
means that research should be informed and guided by theoretical views. Research findings can
therefore be used to describe or explain a theory or be used to come up with new theories (Udo-
Akang, 2012). There are two main types of theories upon which researches are grounded. These
are philosophical theories and scientific theories. Philosophical theories are those whose subject
matter or what they postulate is based on ideas rather than empirical research data (Harlow,
2009). The truth behind philosophical theories does not require an empirical research process or
inquiry in order to be proven. Ethical theories and frameworks are examples of philosophical
theories (Corley & Gioia, 2011).
Scientific theory refers to explanations or descriptions of a phenomenon that are based on
empirical data or facts. Scientific theories are therefore those that have been proven through
observations, surveys or experiments (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). The predictions of a scientific
theory must be predictable, accurate and consistent, regardless of the discipline of study or
research. The evidence that supports scientific theory is strong because it can be authenticated
(Udo-Akang, 2012). Scientific theories are used to define and explain a wide range of concepts,
issues and phenomena. The diversity of the concepts that are described by a scientific theory is
used to define its level of complexity (Harlow, 2009). As scientific knowledge expands, the
accuracy of scientific theory improves. This is due to the role of research in improving
theoretical frameworks and making them more evidence based (Wacker, 1998). The real life

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problems that scientific theory is used to solve include the management or treatment of illnesses
and developing new and improved technologies to solve problems with efficiency.
Various concepts are related to theory and its application in research processes. These
concepts include model, paradigm, concept and hypothesis. Even though these concepts are
related to theory, they can be distinguished from both philosophical and scientific theories (Stam,
2010). A model refers to the tool that is applied in the process of constructing a theory. A model
is often presented graphically or in a written format, and it is used to represent the components of
a theory or its entirety. Models are not used to explain the components of a theory. Instead, they
act as a method or approach through which researchers can explore a theory (Colquitt & Zapata-
Phelan, 2007). Models are effectively used to illustrate a theory and its constituent components.
Examples of models that are used to explore theories include molecular models and structural
models (Gelso, 2006).
A paradigm is a group or framework of worldviews or beliefs, which researchers use to
define the boundaries, methods and values upon which their research processes are based (Udo-
Akang, 2012). The approach through which a research topic is tackled is therefore part of the
research paradigm. Researchers use paradigms to distinguish between what is important and
warrants scientific inquiry from what is not important (Stam, 2010). In addition, paradigms allow
researchers to determine and explain what they can possibly achieve during the research and
what is impossible. In this sense, paradigms are the divergent views of a theory which are
necessary to direct the research towards the end objective. (Colquitt & Zapata-Phelan, 2007).

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A concept is a unit of a theory. It acts as a building block upon which the postulates of a
theory are constructed. This means that concepts are used to come up with a theory or a
theoretical framework (Stam, 2010). The manner in which researchers interpret, explain and
describe a theory is based on its concepts. Theoretical concepts can also be viewed as the items
within a research topic or concerns that are being investigated (Harlow, 2009). Researchers often
compare a wide range of items in line with how they relate and how they affect each other. These
items are described as the main concepts of the research (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). Concept is
therefore a method that researchers use to describe a theory or theoretical work. Education is an
example of a concept that is used to describe the learning experiences of an individual.
A hypothesis is an important element of a research process that describes the educated
prediction or informed guess of the way the research subject is to be tested statistically .
Researchers come up with hypotheses on the basis of their prior knowledge, experiences or
observations (Wacker, 1998). A hypothesis differs from a theory because it is not yet proven or
substantiated. Research hypotheses must be testable in order to become a theory. This is different
from a theory which does not need to be tested in order to be applicable in understanding a
phenomenon (Corley & Gioia, 2011). One or more hypotheses can be presented by researchers
with a view of using scientific evidence to prove or substantiate them. This implies that a
hypothesis is one of the components of a scientific theory (Stam, 2010).
From a review of the views of different scholars, it becomes apparent that there are
different perspectives of what constitutes a scientific theory. For instance, one view of a theory is
that it is made of different constructs. There are a wide range of constructs that make up a theory

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(Jeanjean & Ramirez, 2009). They include its delimitation, level of clarity, comprehensiveness,
testability, heuristic value, descriptive ability, integration and explanatory ability. Research is
used to refine a research and to achieve an understanding of its constituent constructs. This view
of a theory is different from the views that describe a theory as a system of rules or a set of
organized knowledge (Gelso, 2006).
The three main approaches of research to theory like realism, instrumentalism and
reductionism are too be understood clearly if theory has to be applied in research.While the view
of realism is that entities live and exist independently and beyond the scope of being
perceived as they are real .(Jeanjean & Ramirez, 2009). This means that people should view the
world on the basis of what research findings suggest and not their own subjective perceptions.
This view of theory links theoretical frameworks with the importance of research processes in
achieving an objective understanding of the world (Stam, 2010). The instrumentalism view of
theory provides that theory acts as instruments through which people can understand the world.
Instrumentalism further speaks of whether the theory is effective in explaining why a particular
phenomena is used and how predicable it is . The reductionism view of theory indicates that the
ability of an individual to learn about complex systems is based on an understanding of its units
or constituent parts (Wacker, 1998).
Part 2
Different scholarly perspectives and views on research theory reveal the significant
relationship that exists between research and theory. For instance, theory is viewed as that which
covers specific laws, brings about some form of enlightenment and is applicable in narrating or

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explaining phenomena (Ellis & Levy, 2008). The role of research findings in bringing about
enlightenment or informing people about phenomena that was previously not understood
demonstrates how research and theory are interrelated (Harlow, 2009). Both theory and research
processes are used to educate people on methods, strategies and approaches through which they
can mitigate or solve problems within the society (Leedy & Ormond, 2005). Because theory is a
set of knowledge or rules, it is used to define the procedures and standards that would be
applicable in implementing the most effective solutions to a problem (Ellis & Levy, 2008).
Research and theory have a special relationship. On one hand, theory is used to explain or
to predict phenomena. On the other hand, research is used to gather, analyze and interpret data
and information in order to improve the understanding of a phenomenon (Harlow, 2009). This
means that both theory and research are important in enhancing people’s understanding of the
world or society. New knowledge, which can be identified and proven, must be produced by a
credible research. It is on the basis of this new knowledge that more understanding of
phenomena is achieved (Ellis & Levy, 2008). Therefore, both research findings and theoretical
perspectives can be used at the same time to satisfy the needs of achieving more understanding
of happenings.
Research and theory have a symbiotic relationship, which makes them interdependent
(Ng & Hase, 2008). This is depicted by the fact that researchers rely on theory to interpret and
explain their findings and theory is proven through a research process (Harlow, 2009). The
credibility and reliability of research findings and inferences are based on the ability of a
researcher to test and prove theoretical ideas and postulates. Research process focuses on

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contributing or building upon the existing knowledge and theory (Ellis & Levy, 2008). This is
achieved by adding new facts, which are important in expanding theory.
Researchers define the problem that their research findings aim at achieving before
engaging in the actual research process (Weick, 1995). During the process of defining the
research problem, the relationship between research and theory becomes apparent. This is
because the research problem is related with the need to fill gaps in existing theory or providing
more understanding on theoretical perspectives on a phenomenon (Gelso, 2006). This means that
theory plays an important role in advancing research or scientific inquiry. Research processes
that aim at verifying theory also reveal the relationship that exists between theory and research.
Research process can also be used to refute or to explore a theory (Ellis & Levy, 2008).
Qualitative and quantitative research are the two main methods that researcher use in
conducting scientific inquiry. In qualitative research, researchers seek to achieve in-depth
understanding and interpretation of phenomena that is associated with human interaction or the
socialization process (Harlow, 2009). The kind of data that is gathered and analyzed during
qualitative research is non-statistical. Therefore, qualitative research entails investigation and
understanding of the complex issues within the society, such as the perceptions, views and
beliefs of members of the community (Ellis & Levy, 2008). On the other hand, quantitative
research entails scientific inquiry that employs statistical and mathematical approaches and
techniques to gather, analyze and interpret quantifiable data (Lynham, 2002). These two methods
of the research process are important in the process of developing theories.

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Quantitative method of research inquiry contributes to the development of theory because
it provides researchers with a measurable and specified approach of collecting and analyzing the
gathered data (Weick, 1995). Through this method, access to statistical or mathematical data is
facilitated. This data is then used to create a theory or refine an existing theory (Ellis & Levy,
2008). Qualitative research method plays an important role in the process of developing a theory
because it provides researchers with a way or means of measuring observations, documenting
them and interpreting their meaning (Harlow, 2009). Since theories emanate from the
observations of scholars or researchers, the role of qualitative research method in the developing
theories becomes apparent.
Theories on the management of organizations are commonly based on qualitative
research findings, inferences and recommendations (Ng & Hase, 2008). Through qualitative
research methods, researchers are able to gather and interpret data on human behavior and the
factors that influence this behavior. This data is used to develop theories on the styles and
approaches of managing people, which are based on understanding of their behavioral attributes
(Ellis & Levy, 2008). The complexities that characterize human interactions within the society
are also understood best through qualitative research. Therefore, theories, such as those on
criminal behavior are developed through the application of qualitative research methods (Leedy
& Ormond, 2005).
Through qualitative research methods, researchers are able to achieve in-depth thoughts
and description of various phenomena (Harlow, 2009). These thoughts are then used to formulate
theories. In addition, qualitative research allows researchers to probe deeper into an issue during

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the data collection process, which is used to develop theories that describe social issues that are
deviant of the norm (Ellis & Levy, 2008). the research process, both qualitative and quantitative,
also plays a critical role in testing theories or shading more light on the concepts or components
of existing theories (Lynham, 2002).
Examples of constructs that can be used to illustrate the importance of research in the
formulation of theories include causal relationships, predictive model development,
developmental studies for product development and efficacy evaluation (Ng & Hase, 2008).
Research is used to describe causal effect relationships, which are important in development of
theories on the consequences of specific actions. Predictive models are developed through
research observations or findings (Ellis & Levy, 2008). These models are then used to develop
theories. Therefore, the important role of research in the creation, formulation and validation of
theory should not be taken for granted. However, it is important to note that the need to refute a
theory does not necessarily have to be supported by research. In some cases, researchers use their
research findings to draft proposals for the refinement of an existing theory (Harlow, 2009).
Part 3
Reductionism is one of the main views on research theory. This view of theory maintains
that the understanding of complex systems should be based on an understanding of its units or
constituent parts (Gershenson, 2013). I would use reductionism to conduct my study on the topic
“The Impact of Privatization on the Quality of Healthcare in Prisons”. I will utilize reductionism
to understand the constituent parts or components of health care quality, such as responsiveness
to the needs of patients, patient centeredness, and evidence based care, efficiency and safety in

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line to how the privatization of health care services within correctional facilities affects them
(Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013). Reductionism has three main parts. These
are ontological reductionism, theory reductionism and methodological reductionism (Theurer,
2013).
Ontological reductionism is a view of research theory that proposes that specific parts
form a whole (Goldstein, 2012). On the basis of this view of research theory, I will identify the
specific parts of the health care quality that define the holistic quality of care that private health
care providers give to patients within correctional facilities. After identifying these parts, I will
collect data related to each of the aspects of quality and relate it with how it is impacted by the
privatization of health care services within correctional facilities.
I will use qualitative method to gather data on the views and perceptions of inmates on
the responsiveness of private health care providers to their health care needs. I will then analyze
the gathered data with a goal of proving or refuting theoretical views on privatization and the
quality of health care services within correctional facilities. I will do the same for the other
aspects or indicators of health care quality. In doing this I will also focus on the development or
creation of a theory that explains the decreasing quality of care within correctional facilities
(Penrod, Loeb & Smith, 2014). I will achieve this by determining whether the decreasing quality
of health care is related to privatization of health care services within prisons or other factors that
affect health, such as availability of resources and overcrowding (Stern, Greifinger & Mellow,
2010).

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Methodological reductionism provides that the use of research inquiry to explain
phenomena should focus on the smaller entities of these phenomena (Pattaro, 2008). This view
of research theory is therefore effective in my research because it will enable me to determine the
institutional factors that led to the transfer of health care services within prisons from public
health care organizations to private contractors and the associated implications on the quality of
health care services that are given to patients within federal and state correctional facilities
(Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013). For instance, I will be able to gather and
interpret data on the smaller entities or factors that are associated with privatization, such as the
control of health care by private contractors and allocation of resources, including medical
equipment and private health care providers. I will then use this analysis to formulate a theory
that links privatization of health care systems in prisons and the outcomes of health care service
delivery.
Reductionism can be applied to meanings, explanations, phenomena, theories and objects
(Mackinnon, 2008). This makes it suitable for my research because of the fact that I will analyze
several interrelated variables, such as the quality of health care in prisons, health care outcomes,
privatization, cost containment and allocation of resources (Rieder, Casillas, Mary, Secretan,
Gaspoz & Wolff, 2013). In addition to the theoretical aspects of health care and the delivery of
high quality services, I will employ reductionism as the most appropriate theoretical view in
understanding objects, such health care equipment and environment, and relate them to
privatization and the safety of health care services that are provided to inmates by private health
care professionals.

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Theory reductionism suggests that when researchers use their findings to formulate a new
theory, this theory does not absorb or replace and older theory (Gershenson, 2013). Instead, the
new theory reduces the older theory into more basic concepts and terms. Through theory
reductionism I will be able to explore into more specific and basic aspects of the existing theory
on privatization and the quality of health care within correctional facilities. For instance, I will
break the general theory on quality and private health care systems in prisons into the specific
components or indicators of the quality of health care (Stern, Greifinger & Mellow, 2010). It is
through this that my research will indicate how the specific aspects of health care quality, such as
patient centeredness, safety, efficiency and responsiveness to the needs of inmate patients are
affected by the privatization of correctional health care systems.
Reductionism will also allow me to achieve an in-depth understanding of the role of
privatization of correctional health care systems on the preservation of the ethics of health care.
This is attributed to the fact the preservation of the ethical framework of health care is one of the
many components of care that defines the quality of services that patients receive. The ethics of
health care provide that the needs of patients are met through the delivery of safe health care
services, which are aimed at minimizing harm and promoting the physiological and
psychological wellbeing of patients (Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013).
Through reductionism, I will be able to gather comprehensive data on all aspects of health care
quality and determine the indicators of health care quality within correctional facilities that is
affected most through privatization.

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Even though reductionism would contribute significantly, there are two areas of
controversy about this theory that I will have to put in mind in order to ensure that I use it
appropriately in order to achieve the objectives of my study. First, it is notable that not all
phenomena can be reduced to their constituent parts. For this reason, this theory may not be
effective in explaining complex systems, such as those that have feedback loops (Kauffman,
2009). Social systems are highly complex and therefore the role of reductionism in
understanding its component parts may be limited. Prisons are examples of complex social
systems. This means that the extent to which I will apply reductionism to understand the specific
components of the prisons social system, such as interaction between private health care
providers and prisoners and social factors that impact health care incomes within prisons, may be
limited (Davies, Charles & Handscomb, 2013).
There is also controversy on reductionism that is related to criticisms that it fragments
knowledge. The fact that reductionism provides for the isolation of a system or phenomenon into
its small parts results in concerns that knowledge on the components of a system may not
appropriate in understanding the functioning of the system as a whole (Lausen, 2014). The
indicators of health care quality and the factors associated with the privatization of health care
services within correctional facilities are the components of my study, which would be
fragmented as a result of applying the reductionism theoretical view (Rieder, Casillas, Mary,
Secretan, Gaspoz & Wolff, 2013). However, I will limit this fragmentation by analyzing all
research findings in line with two main variables: privatization correctional health care systems

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and the quality of health care. This will allow me to ensure that the research findings are credible
and reliable to inform the decisions of policy makers.
Practical Application
Part 1
Theory is described as a systematic process of organizing knowledge. The organized
knowledge should be applicable in providing solutions to problems in real world or in practice
(Gilbert, 2010). Various professional disciplines or fields employ different theories in solving
problems that are unique to the field of practice. A theory is also described as a guideline upon
which a problem is formulated or understood. It therefore indicates the most effective approaches
or methods that can be used to overcome a problem (Aertsen, Jaspaert & Van Gorp, 2013). The
outcomes of a solution are effectively measured through the use of relevant theoretical
perspectives or frameworks. When a theory is used to determine or identify a problem and to
measure the solution or methods of solving the problem, then it is said that theory has been
applied in practice (Yardley, Teunissen, & Dornan, 2012).

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