Development Through the Lifespan, 7th Edition Class Notes
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CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary
Field p. 5
Learning Objective 1.1 Test Bank Items 1–3
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Basic Issues pp. 5–7
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? •
One Course of Development or Many? •
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?
Learning Objective 1.2
Learning Activity 1.1
Test Bank Items 4–12, 126
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced
Point of View pp. 7–12
Development Is Lifelong • Development Is
Multidimensional and Multidirectional •
Development Is Plastic • Development Is
Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces
Learning Objective 1.3
Lecture Enhancement 1.1
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.3
Ask Yourself p. 12
Test Bank Items 13–23
Scientific Beginnings pp. 12–14
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study •
The Normative Period • The Mental Testing
Movement
Learning Objective 1.4
Learning Activity 1.2
Test Bank Items 24–29, 127
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories pp. 14–19
The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behaviorism
and Social Learning Theory • Piaget’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Learning Objective 1.5
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Ask Yourself p. 19
Test Bank Items 30–51, 128
Recent Theoretical Perspectives pp. 19–26
Information Processing • Developmental
Neuroscience • Ethology and Evolutionary
Developmental Psychology • Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory • Ecological Systems
Theory
Learning Objective 1.6
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4, 1.5
Ask Yourself p. 26
Test Bank Items 52–72, 129
Comparing and Evaluating Theories p. 26 Learning Objective 1.7
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Test Bank Items 73, 75
Studying Development pp. 26–37
Common Research Methods • General
Research Designs • Designs for Studying
Development
Learning Objectives 1.8–1.10
Lecture Enhancement 1.2
Learning Activities 1.6, 1.7
Ask Yourself pp. 31, 37
Test Bank Items 74, 76–121, 130–131
Ethics in Lifespan Research pp. 37–39 Learning Objective 1.11
Ask Yourself p. 39
Test Bank Items 122–125
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the
lifespan. All investigators who study development share a single goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and
transformations in people from conception to death.
Theories of human development take a stance on three basic issues: (1) Is the course of development continuous or
discontinuous? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible courses? (3) What are
the roles of nature and nurture in development? The lifespan perspective assumes that development is (1) lifelong,
(2) multidimensional and multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary
Field p. 5
Learning Objective 1.1 Test Bank Items 1–3
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Basic Issues pp. 5–7
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? •
One Course of Development or Many? •
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?
Learning Objective 1.2
Learning Activity 1.1
Test Bank Items 4–12, 126
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced
Point of View pp. 7–12
Development Is Lifelong • Development Is
Multidimensional and Multidirectional •
Development Is Plastic • Development Is
Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces
Learning Objective 1.3
Lecture Enhancement 1.1
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.3
Ask Yourself p. 12
Test Bank Items 13–23
Scientific Beginnings pp. 12–14
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study •
The Normative Period • The Mental Testing
Movement
Learning Objective 1.4
Learning Activity 1.2
Test Bank Items 24–29, 127
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories pp. 14–19
The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behaviorism
and Social Learning Theory • Piaget’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Learning Objective 1.5
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Ask Yourself p. 19
Test Bank Items 30–51, 128
Recent Theoretical Perspectives pp. 19–26
Information Processing • Developmental
Neuroscience • Ethology and Evolutionary
Developmental Psychology • Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory • Ecological Systems
Theory
Learning Objective 1.6
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4, 1.5
Ask Yourself p. 26
Test Bank Items 52–72, 129
Comparing and Evaluating Theories p. 26 Learning Objective 1.7
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Test Bank Items 73, 75
Studying Development pp. 26–37
Common Research Methods • General
Research Designs • Designs for Studying
Development
Learning Objectives 1.8–1.10
Lecture Enhancement 1.2
Learning Activities 1.6, 1.7
Ask Yourself pp. 31, 37
Test Bank Items 74, 76–121, 130–131
Ethics in Lifespan Research pp. 37–39 Learning Objective 1.11
Ask Yourself p. 39
Test Bank Items 122–125
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the
lifespan. All investigators who study development share a single goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and
transformations in people from conception to death.
Theories of human development take a stance on three basic issues: (1) Is the course of development continuous or
discontinuous? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible courses? (3) What are
the roles of nature and nurture in development? The lifespan perspective assumes that development is (1) lifelong,
(2) multidimensional and multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
1
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary
Field p. 5
Learning Objective 1.1 Test Bank Items 1–3
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Basic Issues pp. 5–7
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? •
One Course of Development or Many? •
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?
Learning Objective 1.2
Learning Activity 1.1
Test Bank Items 4–12, 126
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced
Point of View pp. 7–12
Development Is Lifelong • Development Is
Multidimensional and Multidirectional •
Development Is Plastic • Development Is
Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces
Learning Objective 1.3
Lecture Enhancement 1.1
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.3
Ask Yourself p. 12
Test Bank Items 13–23
Scientific Beginnings pp. 12–14
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study •
The Normative Period • The Mental Testing
Movement
Learning Objective 1.4
Learning Activity 1.2
Test Bank Items 24–29, 127
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories pp. 14–19
The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behaviorism
and Social Learning Theory • Piaget’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Learning Objective 1.5
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Ask Yourself p. 19
Test Bank Items 30–51, 128
Recent Theoretical Perspectives pp. 19–26
Information Processing • Developmental
Neuroscience • Ethology and Evolutionary
Developmental Psychology • Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory • Ecological Systems
Theory
Learning Objective 1.6
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4, 1.5
Ask Yourself p. 26
Test Bank Items 52–72, 129
Comparing and Evaluating Theories p. 26 Learning Objective 1.7
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Test Bank Items 73, 75
Studying Development pp. 26–37
Common Research Methods • General
Research Designs • Designs for Studying
Development
Learning Objectives 1.8–1.10
Lecture Enhancement 1.2
Learning Activities 1.6, 1.7
Ask Yourself pp. 31, 37
Test Bank Items 74, 76–121, 130–131
Ethics in Lifespan Research pp. 37–39 Learning Objective 1.11
Ask Yourself p. 39
Test Bank Items 122–125
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the
lifespan. All investigators who study development share a single goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and
transformations in people from conception to death.
Theories of human development take a stance on three basic issues: (1) Is the course of development continuous or
discontinuous? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible courses? (3) What are
the roles of nature and nurture in development? The lifespan perspective assumes that development is (1) lifelong,
(2) multidimensional and multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary
Field p. 5
Learning Objective 1.1 Test Bank Items 1–3
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Basic Issues pp. 5–7
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? •
One Course of Development or Many? •
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?
Learning Objective 1.2
Learning Activity 1.1
Test Bank Items 4–12, 126
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced
Point of View pp. 7–12
Development Is Lifelong • Development Is
Multidimensional and Multidirectional •
Development Is Plastic • Development Is
Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces
Learning Objective 1.3
Lecture Enhancement 1.1
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.3
Ask Yourself p. 12
Test Bank Items 13–23
Scientific Beginnings pp. 12–14
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study •
The Normative Period • The Mental Testing
Movement
Learning Objective 1.4
Learning Activity 1.2
Test Bank Items 24–29, 127
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories pp. 14–19
The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behaviorism
and Social Learning Theory • Piaget’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Learning Objective 1.5
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Ask Yourself p. 19
Test Bank Items 30–51, 128
Recent Theoretical Perspectives pp. 19–26
Information Processing • Developmental
Neuroscience • Ethology and Evolutionary
Developmental Psychology • Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory • Ecological Systems
Theory
Learning Objective 1.6
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4, 1.5
Ask Yourself p. 26
Test Bank Items 52–72, 129
Comparing and Evaluating Theories p. 26 Learning Objective 1.7
Learning Activities 1.2, 1.4
Test Bank Items 73, 75
Studying Development pp. 26–37
Common Research Methods • General
Research Designs • Designs for Studying
Development
Learning Objectives 1.8–1.10
Lecture Enhancement 1.2
Learning Activities 1.6, 1.7
Ask Yourself pp. 31, 37
Test Bank Items 74, 76–121, 130–131
Ethics in Lifespan Research pp. 37–39 Learning Objective 1.11
Ask Yourself p. 39
Test Bank Items 122–125
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the
lifespan. All investigators who study development share a single goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and
transformations in people from conception to death.
Theories of human development take a stance on three basic issues: (1) Is the course of development continuous or
discontinuous? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible courses? (3) What are
the roles of nature and nurture in development? The lifespan perspective assumes that development is (1) lifelong,
(2) multidimensional and multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
2
Scientific study of human development dates back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution emphasized the adaptive value of physical characteristics and behavior. Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual
theory and Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory both viewed development as discontinuous (occurring in stages), but Erikson
added three adult stages to Freud’s five stages of childhood.
In contrast to the psychoanalytic perspective, behaviorism focused on directly observable events: stimuli and responses.
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, which emphasized modeling as a powerful source of development, remains influential.
Jean Piaget, disagreeing with the behaviorists, developed a cognitive-developmental theory, based on the idea that children
actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.
Recent theoretical perspectives include information processing, which views the human mind as a symbol-manipulating
system; developmental neuroscience, which studies the relationship between changes in the brain and cognitive and emotional
development; ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology, which are concerned with the adaptive value of behavior;
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which focuses on how culture is transmitted through social interaction; and Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which examines development in the context of a complex system of relationships.
Research in human development, like all scientific research, begins with a hypothesis. Research methods used to study
development include systematic observation; self-reports; the clinical, or case study, method, which focuses on a single
individual; and ethnography, the study of a culture or social group.
Investigators of human development can choose either a correlational research design, which cannot determine causality,
or an experimental design, which uses dependent and independent variables to determine cause and effect. Experiments may be
carried out in the field, or natural settings, or in the laboratory. To study how individuals change over time, investigators use
longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs, each of which has both strengths and limitations.
Conducting research with human subjects poses special ethical dilemmas, particularly for children and for older adults who
are ill or cognitively impaired.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following:
1.1 What is developmental science, and what factors stimulated expansion of the field? (p. 5)
1.2 Identify three basic issues on which theories of human development take a stand. (pp. 5–7)
1.3 Describe the lifespan perspective on development. (pp. 7–12)
1.4 Describe major early influences on the scientific study of development. (pp. 12–14)
1.5 What theories influenced human development research in the mid-twentieth century? (pp. 14–19)
1.6 Describe recent theoretical perspectives on human development. (pp. 19–26)
1.7 Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the three basic issues of human development. (p. 27)
1.8 Describe methods commonly used in research on human development. (pp. 28–31)
1.9 Distinguish between correlational and experimental research designs, noting the strengths and limitations of each.
(pp. 31–34)
1.10 Describe designs for studying development, noting the strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 35–37)
1.11 What special ethical concerns arise in research on human development? (pp. 37–39)
2
Scientific study of human development dates back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution emphasized the adaptive value of physical characteristics and behavior. Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual
theory and Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory both viewed development as discontinuous (occurring in stages), but Erikson
added three adult stages to Freud’s five stages of childhood.
In contrast to the psychoanalytic perspective, behaviorism focused on directly observable events: stimuli and responses.
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, which emphasized modeling as a powerful source of development, remains influential.
Jean Piaget, disagreeing with the behaviorists, developed a cognitive-developmental theory, based on the idea that children
actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world.
Recent theoretical perspectives include information processing, which views the human mind as a symbol-manipulating
system; developmental neuroscience, which studies the relationship between changes in the brain and cognitive and emotional
development; ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology, which are concerned with the adaptive value of behavior;
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which focuses on how culture is transmitted through social interaction; and Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which examines development in the context of a complex system of relationships.
Research in human development, like all scientific research, begins with a hypothesis. Research methods used to study
development include systematic observation; self-reports; the clinical, or case study, method, which focuses on a single
individual; and ethnography, the study of a culture or social group.
Investigators of human development can choose either a correlational research design, which cannot determine causality,
or an experimental design, which uses dependent and independent variables to determine cause and effect. Experiments may be
carried out in the field, or natural settings, or in the laboratory. To study how individuals change over time, investigators use
longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs, each of which has both strengths and limitations.
Conducting research with human subjects poses special ethical dilemmas, particularly for children and for older adults who
are ill or cognitively impaired.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following:
1.1 What is developmental science, and what factors stimulated expansion of the field? (p. 5)
1.2 Identify three basic issues on which theories of human development take a stand. (pp. 5–7)
1.3 Describe the lifespan perspective on development. (pp. 7–12)
1.4 Describe major early influences on the scientific study of development. (pp. 12–14)
1.5 What theories influenced human development research in the mid-twentieth century? (pp. 14–19)
1.6 Describe recent theoretical perspectives on human development. (pp. 19–26)
1.7 Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the three basic issues of human development. (p. 27)
1.8 Describe methods commonly used in research on human development. (pp. 28–31)
1.9 Distinguish between correlational and experimental research designs, noting the strengths and limitations of each.
(pp. 31–34)
1.10 Describe designs for studying development, noting the strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 35–37)
1.11 What special ethical concerns arise in research on human development? (pp. 37–39)
Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
3
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. A SCIENTIFIC, APPLIED, AND INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD (p. 5)
• Developmental science is a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan.
• Research in this area is interdisciplinary and has both applied and scientific importance.
II. BASIC ISSUES (pp. 5–7)
• A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. A theory’s
continued existence depends on scientific verification.
• Theories of human development take a stand on three basic issues: (1) Is development continuous or discontinuous
(taking place in stages)? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible
courses, affected by relationships between individuals and their contexts? (3) What are the roles of genetic and
environmental factors in development (the nature–nurture controversy)?
III. THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE: A BALANCED POINT OF VIEW (pp. 7–12)
• Modern theories recognize that both continuous and discontinuous changes occur and that development continues in
adulthood as well as childhood and adolescence.
• The lifespan perspective is based on the assumptions that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional and
multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
• During each major period of development, significant changes occur in three overlapping and interacting domains:
physical, cognitive, and emotional/social.
• At every period, development is multidimensional—affected by a blend of biological, psychological, and social
forces—and multidirectional: a joint expression of growth and decline, both over time and within each domain.
• Plasticity in development is evident at all ages but decreases over time and varies greatly across individuals,
depending in part on their resilience.
• Development is influenced by multiple, interacting forces, including age-graded influences, history-graded
influences, and nonnormative influences.
IV. SCIENTIFIC BEGINNINGS (pp. 12–14)
• In the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution emphasized two related principles: natural selection
and survival of the fittest.
• G. Stanley Hall and his student Arnold Gesell launched the normative approach to child study, in which age-related
averages are computed to represent typical development.
• French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon constructed the first successful intelligence test, sparking
tremendous interest in individual differences in development.
V. MID-TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEORIES (pp. 14–19)
• The psychoanalytic perspective assumes that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts
between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines psychological
adjustment.
• In Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and superego—become integrated
during five stages of development. Healthy personality development depends on the quality of the early parent–child
relationship.
• Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory expanded Freud’s vision, adding three adult stages and emphasizing the positive
contribution of the ego to development and the importance of cultural context.
• According to behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study.
• Albert Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes modeling as a powerful source of development. Today, this
theory is described as a social-cognitive approach.
• Behaviorism and social learning theory have given rise to applied behavior analysis, which uses conditioning and
modeling procedures to eliminate undesirable behaviors in children and adults.
• According to Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, children move through four broad developmental stages,
each characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. His theory encouraged the development of educational programs emphasizing discovery learning.
• Piaget’s theory has been challenged for underestimating the competencies of infants and preschoolers, for paying
insufficient attention to social and cultural influences, and for failing to recognize that major cognitive transformations
occur in adulthood.
3
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. A SCIENTIFIC, APPLIED, AND INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD (p. 5)
• Developmental science is a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan.
• Research in this area is interdisciplinary and has both applied and scientific importance.
II. BASIC ISSUES (pp. 5–7)
• A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior. A theory’s
continued existence depends on scientific verification.
• Theories of human development take a stand on three basic issues: (1) Is development continuous or discontinuous
(taking place in stages)? (2) Does one course of development characterize all people, or are there many possible
courses, affected by relationships between individuals and their contexts? (3) What are the roles of genetic and
environmental factors in development (the nature–nurture controversy)?
III. THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE: A BALANCED POINT OF VIEW (pp. 7–12)
• Modern theories recognize that both continuous and discontinuous changes occur and that development continues in
adulthood as well as childhood and adolescence.
• The lifespan perspective is based on the assumptions that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional and
multidirectional, (3) highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple, interacting forces.
• During each major period of development, significant changes occur in three overlapping and interacting domains:
physical, cognitive, and emotional/social.
• At every period, development is multidimensional—affected by a blend of biological, psychological, and social
forces—and multidirectional: a joint expression of growth and decline, both over time and within each domain.
• Plasticity in development is evident at all ages but decreases over time and varies greatly across individuals,
depending in part on their resilience.
• Development is influenced by multiple, interacting forces, including age-graded influences, history-graded
influences, and nonnormative influences.
IV. SCIENTIFIC BEGINNINGS (pp. 12–14)
• In the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution emphasized two related principles: natural selection
and survival of the fittest.
• G. Stanley Hall and his student Arnold Gesell launched the normative approach to child study, in which age-related
averages are computed to represent typical development.
• French psychologists Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon constructed the first successful intelligence test, sparking
tremendous interest in individual differences in development.
V. MID-TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEORIES (pp. 14–19)
• The psychoanalytic perspective assumes that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts
between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines psychological
adjustment.
• In Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory, three parts of the personality—id, ego, and superego—become integrated
during five stages of development. Healthy personality development depends on the quality of the early parent–child
relationship.
• Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory expanded Freud’s vision, adding three adult stages and emphasizing the positive
contribution of the ego to development and the importance of cultural context.
• According to behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study.
• Albert Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes modeling as a powerful source of development. Today, this
theory is described as a social-cognitive approach.
• Behaviorism and social learning theory have given rise to applied behavior analysis, which uses conditioning and
modeling procedures to eliminate undesirable behaviors in children and adults.
• According to Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, children move through four broad developmental stages,
each characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. His theory encouraged the development of educational programs emphasizing discovery learning.
• Piaget’s theory has been challenged for underestimating the competencies of infants and preschoolers, for paying
insufficient attention to social and cultural influences, and for failing to recognize that major cognitive transformations
occur in adulthood.
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
4
VI. RECENT THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES (pp. 19–26)
• Information-processing researchers view the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which
information flows. In this approach, development is a continuous process in which people actively make sense of their
own thinking.
• Developmental cognitive neuroscience brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and
medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and
behavior patterns.
• Developmental social neuroscience, a complementary new area, focuses on the relationship between changes in the
brain and emotional and social development.
• Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history.
• A sensitive period is a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is
especially responsive to environmental influences.
• John Bowlby applied ethological theory to the development of human infant–caregiver attachment.
• Evolutionary developmental psychology seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive,
emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age. The goal is to understand the person–
environment system throughout the lifespan.
• Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory focuses on how the culture of a social group is transmitted to the next
generation through social interaction—in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of
society.
• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem—as well as a temporal dimension, the chronosystem.
VII. COMPARING AND EVALUATING THEORIES (p. 26)
• Major theories of development focus on different domains and take different stands on the basic issues of
development.
• Every theory has both strengths and limitations.
VIII. STUDYING DEVELOPMENT (pp. 26–37)
• Common research methods include systematic observation, self-reports, clinical or case studies, and ethnographies.
• Systematic observation—either naturalistic observation in the field or structured observations in a laboratory—
provides information about actual behavior but does not reveal the reasoning behind the responses.
• Self-reports include the clinical interview, in which researchers ask questions in a flexible, conversational style, and
the structured interview, in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way.
• The clinical, or case study, method brings together information from a variety of sources to produce as complete a
picture as possible of a single individual.
• Ethnography is directed toward understanding the cultural meanings of behavior through participant observation.
• Investigations of human behavior use two main types of research designs: correlational and experimental.
• A correlational design reveals relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior or development
but does not allow researchers to infer cause and effect.
• A correlation coefficient describes how two variables are associated with each other.
• An experimental design uses random assignment of participants to treatment conditions. Researchers then
manipulate an independent variable and investigate the effects on a dependent variable.
• Modified experimental designs include field experiments and natural, or quasi-, experiments, in which investigators
compare treatments that already exist.
• Designs for studying development include the longitudinal design, in which participants are studied repeatedly at
different ages, and the cross-sectional design, in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same
point in time.
• Problems in conducting longitudinal research include participant dropout, practice effects, and cohort effects.
• The cross-sectional design also may suffer from cohort effects and does not provide evidence about development at
the individual level.
• To overcome some of these limitations, researchers may use sequential designs, in which they conduct several
similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, or sequences.
• Research that combines an experimental strategy with either a longitudinal or a cross-sectional approach is becoming
increasingly common.
4
VI. RECENT THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES (pp. 19–26)
• Information-processing researchers view the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which
information flows. In this approach, development is a continuous process in which people actively make sense of their
own thinking.
• Developmental cognitive neuroscience brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and
medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and
behavior patterns.
• Developmental social neuroscience, a complementary new area, focuses on the relationship between changes in the
brain and emotional and social development.
• Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history.
• A sensitive period is a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is
especially responsive to environmental influences.
• John Bowlby applied ethological theory to the development of human infant–caregiver attachment.
• Evolutionary developmental psychology seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive,
emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age. The goal is to understand the person–
environment system throughout the lifespan.
• Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory focuses on how the culture of a social group is transmitted to the next
generation through social interaction—in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of
society.
• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem—as well as a temporal dimension, the chronosystem.
VII. COMPARING AND EVALUATING THEORIES (p. 26)
• Major theories of development focus on different domains and take different stands on the basic issues of
development.
• Every theory has both strengths and limitations.
VIII. STUDYING DEVELOPMENT (pp. 26–37)
• Common research methods include systematic observation, self-reports, clinical or case studies, and ethnographies.
• Systematic observation—either naturalistic observation in the field or structured observations in a laboratory—
provides information about actual behavior but does not reveal the reasoning behind the responses.
• Self-reports include the clinical interview, in which researchers ask questions in a flexible, conversational style, and
the structured interview, in which each participant is asked the same set of questions in the same way.
• The clinical, or case study, method brings together information from a variety of sources to produce as complete a
picture as possible of a single individual.
• Ethnography is directed toward understanding the cultural meanings of behavior through participant observation.
• Investigations of human behavior use two main types of research designs: correlational and experimental.
• A correlational design reveals relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior or development
but does not allow researchers to infer cause and effect.
• A correlation coefficient describes how two variables are associated with each other.
• An experimental design uses random assignment of participants to treatment conditions. Researchers then
manipulate an independent variable and investigate the effects on a dependent variable.
• Modified experimental designs include field experiments and natural, or quasi-, experiments, in which investigators
compare treatments that already exist.
• Designs for studying development include the longitudinal design, in which participants are studied repeatedly at
different ages, and the cross-sectional design, in which groups of people differing in age are studied at the same
point in time.
• Problems in conducting longitudinal research include participant dropout, practice effects, and cohort effects.
• The cross-sectional design also may suffer from cohort effects and does not provide evidence about development at
the individual level.
• To overcome some of these limitations, researchers may use sequential designs, in which they conduct several
similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, or sequences.
• Research that combines an experimental strategy with either a longitudinal or a cross-sectional approach is becoming
increasingly common.
Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
5
IX. ETHICS IN LIFESPAN RESEARCH (pp. 37–39)
• Ethical concerns in research are especially complex when participants are children or older adults.
• Institutional review boards (IRBs) balance the costs of the research to participants against the potential value of the
study, with preference always given to participants’ interests.
• The principle of informed consent requires special interpretation when participants (including young children and
adults who are cognitively impaired) cannot fully appreciate the research goals and activities.
• When deception and concealment are used in research, debriefing must occur after the research session is over.
• Many experts believe that deception should be used with children only if the risk of harm is minimal.
5
IX. ETHICS IN LIFESPAN RESEARCH (pp. 37–39)
• Ethical concerns in research are especially complex when participants are children or older adults.
• Institutional review boards (IRBs) balance the costs of the research to participants against the potential value of the
study, with preference always given to participants’ interests.
• The principle of informed consent requires special interpretation when participants (including young children and
adults who are cognitively impaired) cannot fully appreciate the research goals and activities.
• When deception and concealment are used in research, debriefing must occur after the research session is over.
• Many experts believe that deception should be used with children only if the risk of harm is minimal.
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
6
LECTURE ENHANCEMENTS
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 1.1
Individual Resilience and Social Support: A Bidirectional Relationship (pp. 10–11)
Objective: To consider evidence for a bidirectional relationship between individual resilience and social support, with
implications for designing interventions to promote resilience.
The Biology and Environment box on pages 10–11 identifies broad factors that promote resilience, including personal
characteristics, close relationships, and social support. In this review of research, Sippel et al. (2015) address how two of these
factors—social support and community resources—can foster individual resilience, and how more resilient individuals, in turn,
can promote a community’s capacity to provide social support.
Sippel et al. cite evidence that in addition to the positive effects of social support on individuals, “[i]ndividual well-being
… appears to influence the well-being of one’s support system.” In their own work, for example, they have found that
community programs providing support for individual families can lead to “[m]ore cohesive, engaged families [who] can then
feed back to the well-being of the community.” And in studies of military veterans and survivors of natural disasters, they find
“emerging evidence of a bidirectional relationship between healthy communities and more resilient individuals.” They note,
however, that this “dynamic interplay of individual and collective experience” can have either positive or negative results. For
example, immediately after a natural disaster, shared distress tends to promote a feeling of solidarity and altruism. But as
feelings of distress wane for most survivors, individuals who continue to experience severe trauma-related symptoms may
come to be viewed as a burden, challenging the community’s perception of its own successful recovery.
This paper provides some interesting avenues for a discussion of resilience. In addition to the research cited by Sippel et
al., classroom discussion can draw on examples from current news reporting—considering, for example, what types of social
support may be most effective in promoting resilience in refugees fleeing war zones or in survivors of terrorist attacks.
Sippel, L. M., et al. (2015). How does social support enhance resilience in the trauma-exposed individual? Ecology and Society,
20(4): 10. doi: 10.5751/ES-07832-200410
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 1.2
The “U.S. Immigrant Paradox”: Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice (p. 32)
Objective: To consider changes in modes of adaptation for immigrant youths, and the implications of these changes for
research, policy, and practice.
This article examines implications of the so-called U.S. immigrant paradox in childhood and adolescence. It can be used to
expand discussion of the Cultural Influences box on immigrant youths (page 32), which cites evidence that children who are
either foreign-born (immigrated with their parents) or first-generation (American-born, with immigrant parents) often have
more optimal developmental outcomes—in terms of both academic achievement and psychological adjustment—than their
agemates who have native-born parents.
These authors cite evidence that, for today’s immigrant youths, optimal modes of adaptation may include biculturalism
rather than assimilation to the majority culture. Theoretical frameworks, however, have been slow to shift away from the
assumption that immigrant youths will thrive as their families move toward full adoption of “American” ways. The authors
suggest that bicultural models best capture optimal adaptation—for example, focusing on skills children need to coordinate
their experiences across important everyday settings, such as home and school. Such models, they maintain, are more relevant
to today’s immigrant families and their U.S.-born children than are the older cultural assimilation models.
To enhance in-class discussion of adaptation by immigrant youths, the instructor can use the ideas presented in this article
to provide an overview of the ways in which research models may influence thinking about minority populations and,
consequently, may affect policy and practice.
Marks, A. K., Ejesi, K., & Coll, C. G. (2014). Understanding the U.S. immigrant paradox in childhood and adolescence. Child
Development Perspectives, 8, 59–64. doi: 10.1111//cdep12071
6
LECTURE ENHANCEMENTS
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 1.1
Individual Resilience and Social Support: A Bidirectional Relationship (pp. 10–11)
Objective: To consider evidence for a bidirectional relationship between individual resilience and social support, with
implications for designing interventions to promote resilience.
The Biology and Environment box on pages 10–11 identifies broad factors that promote resilience, including personal
characteristics, close relationships, and social support. In this review of research, Sippel et al. (2015) address how two of these
factors—social support and community resources—can foster individual resilience, and how more resilient individuals, in turn,
can promote a community’s capacity to provide social support.
Sippel et al. cite evidence that in addition to the positive effects of social support on individuals, “[i]ndividual well-being
… appears to influence the well-being of one’s support system.” In their own work, for example, they have found that
community programs providing support for individual families can lead to “[m]ore cohesive, engaged families [who] can then
feed back to the well-being of the community.” And in studies of military veterans and survivors of natural disasters, they find
“emerging evidence of a bidirectional relationship between healthy communities and more resilient individuals.” They note,
however, that this “dynamic interplay of individual and collective experience” can have either positive or negative results. For
example, immediately after a natural disaster, shared distress tends to promote a feeling of solidarity and altruism. But as
feelings of distress wane for most survivors, individuals who continue to experience severe trauma-related symptoms may
come to be viewed as a burden, challenging the community’s perception of its own successful recovery.
This paper provides some interesting avenues for a discussion of resilience. In addition to the research cited by Sippel et
al., classroom discussion can draw on examples from current news reporting—considering, for example, what types of social
support may be most effective in promoting resilience in refugees fleeing war zones or in survivors of terrorist attacks.
Sippel, L. M., et al. (2015). How does social support enhance resilience in the trauma-exposed individual? Ecology and Society,
20(4): 10. doi: 10.5751/ES-07832-200410
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 1.2
The “U.S. Immigrant Paradox”: Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice (p. 32)
Objective: To consider changes in modes of adaptation for immigrant youths, and the implications of these changes for
research, policy, and practice.
This article examines implications of the so-called U.S. immigrant paradox in childhood and adolescence. It can be used to
expand discussion of the Cultural Influences box on immigrant youths (page 32), which cites evidence that children who are
either foreign-born (immigrated with their parents) or first-generation (American-born, with immigrant parents) often have
more optimal developmental outcomes—in terms of both academic achievement and psychological adjustment—than their
agemates who have native-born parents.
These authors cite evidence that, for today’s immigrant youths, optimal modes of adaptation may include biculturalism
rather than assimilation to the majority culture. Theoretical frameworks, however, have been slow to shift away from the
assumption that immigrant youths will thrive as their families move toward full adoption of “American” ways. The authors
suggest that bicultural models best capture optimal adaptation—for example, focusing on skills children need to coordinate
their experiences across important everyday settings, such as home and school. Such models, they maintain, are more relevant
to today’s immigrant families and their U.S.-born children than are the older cultural assimilation models.
To enhance in-class discussion of adaptation by immigrant youths, the instructor can use the ideas presented in this article
to provide an overview of the ways in which research models may influence thinking about minority populations and,
consequently, may affect policy and practice.
Marks, A. K., Ejesi, K., & Coll, C. G. (2014). Understanding the U.S. immigrant paradox in childhood and adolescence. Child
Development Perspectives, 8, 59–64. doi: 10.1111//cdep12071
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Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
7
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1
Three Basic Issues of Human Development: What Is Your Stance? (pp. 5–7)
This exercise can be used as an in-class assignment to help students express their own views on some basic issues in human
development.
Directions: Here are four pairs of statements relating to basic issues of human development. Read each statement carefully and
select the statement in each pair that more closely reflects your own view.
(1) A. Development is a continuous process in which new abilities, skills, and knowledge are added gradually.
B. Development occurs at varying rates, alternating between periods of little change and periods of abrupt, rapid
transformation.
(2) A. All humans follow the same general sequence of development.
B. Each individual has a unique course of development, depending on personal and environmental circumstances.
(3) A. Children respond to the world in much the same way as adults, except that children’s thinking is less sophisticated
and complex than that of adults.
B. Children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are very different from those of adults.
(4) A. An individual’s personality is mainly determined by heredity.
B. An individual’s personality can be modified through influential experiences.
Ask students to form small groups and discuss their answers to the following questions:
(1) What is their stance on the three basic issues of human development?
(2) Which theories take a stance similar to their own?
(3) If students had to choose a theory that best represents their own view of development, would they choose a single
theory or would they select components of several different theories?
(4) Which aspects of their chosen theory (or theories) make it more attractive than the others?
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2
Keeping a Theory/Research Notebook (pp. 7–26)
Among the many theories of human development, students are likely to find some more appealing and plausible than others.
Encourage students to keep a theory/research notebook in which they construct a systematic list of their theoretical likes and
dislikes. For each theory, ask students to list the concepts and principles they consider important and those they believe to be
inadequate or incorrect. As students learn more throughout the course, ask them to revise their opinions periodically, noting
research that supports their changing views. At the end of the course, each student should have developed a personal
perspective on human development—one that may emphasize a single theory or blend aspects of a number of theories.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3
Factors That Promote Resilience (pp. 10–11)
Ask students to think of an adult they know well, such as a family member or close family friend, who experienced and
overcame significant adversity as a child or adolescent. For example, the individual might have experienced the death of a
parent or sibling, experienced school or community violence, or become a teenage parent. Ask students to describe the person’s
experiences briefly and then to consider factors that may have contributed to resilience. For example, what personal
characteristics does this individual possess that likely helped him or her overcome hardship? Did this person have a warm
relationship with a parent, social support outside the family, or access to community resources? Using research described in the
text, explain how these factors may have contributed to resilience.
7
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1
Three Basic Issues of Human Development: What Is Your Stance? (pp. 5–7)
This exercise can be used as an in-class assignment to help students express their own views on some basic issues in human
development.
Directions: Here are four pairs of statements relating to basic issues of human development. Read each statement carefully and
select the statement in each pair that more closely reflects your own view.
(1) A. Development is a continuous process in which new abilities, skills, and knowledge are added gradually.
B. Development occurs at varying rates, alternating between periods of little change and periods of abrupt, rapid
transformation.
(2) A. All humans follow the same general sequence of development.
B. Each individual has a unique course of development, depending on personal and environmental circumstances.
(3) A. Children respond to the world in much the same way as adults, except that children’s thinking is less sophisticated
and complex than that of adults.
B. Children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are very different from those of adults.
(4) A. An individual’s personality is mainly determined by heredity.
B. An individual’s personality can be modified through influential experiences.
Ask students to form small groups and discuss their answers to the following questions:
(1) What is their stance on the three basic issues of human development?
(2) Which theories take a stance similar to their own?
(3) If students had to choose a theory that best represents their own view of development, would they choose a single
theory or would they select components of several different theories?
(4) Which aspects of their chosen theory (or theories) make it more attractive than the others?
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2
Keeping a Theory/Research Notebook (pp. 7–26)
Among the many theories of human development, students are likely to find some more appealing and plausible than others.
Encourage students to keep a theory/research notebook in which they construct a systematic list of their theoretical likes and
dislikes. For each theory, ask students to list the concepts and principles they consider important and those they believe to be
inadequate or incorrect. As students learn more throughout the course, ask them to revise their opinions periodically, noting
research that supports their changing views. At the end of the course, each student should have developed a personal
perspective on human development—one that may emphasize a single theory or blend aspects of a number of theories.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3
Factors That Promote Resilience (pp. 10–11)
Ask students to think of an adult they know well, such as a family member or close family friend, who experienced and
overcame significant adversity as a child or adolescent. For example, the individual might have experienced the death of a
parent or sibling, experienced school or community violence, or become a teenage parent. Ask students to describe the person’s
experiences briefly and then to consider factors that may have contributed to resilience. For example, what personal
characteristics does this individual possess that likely helped him or her overcome hardship? Did this person have a warm
relationship with a parent, social support outside the family, or access to community resources? Using research described in the
text, explain how these factors may have contributed to resilience.
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
8
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4
True or False: Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories and Recent Theoretical Perspectives (pp. 14–26)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Read each of the following statements and indicate whether it is True (T) or False (F).
_____ 1. According to Freud, in each stage of psychosexual development, parents walk a fine line between permitting
too much or too little gratification of their child’s basic needs.
_____ 2. Both Freud and Erikson pointed out that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s
life situation.
_____ 3. Behaviorism has been praised for acknowledging people’s contributions to their own development.
_____ 4. In Piaget’s theory, as the brain develops and children’s experiences expand, they move through four broad
stages, each characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking.
_____ 5. Research indicates that Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers.
_____ 6. Information-processing researchers view the mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which
information flows.
_____ 7. Developmental neuroscience can identify relationships between changes in the brain and cognitive processing,
but it has little to say about social or emotional development.
_____ 8. According to Vygotsky, social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and
behaving that make up a community’s culture.
_____ 9. The mesosystem consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect
experiences in immediate settings.
_____ 10. Bronfenbrenner characterized the environment as dynamic and ever-changing.
Answers:
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. F
10. T
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.5
Applying Ecological Systems Theory to a Current Issue in Child or Adult Development (pp. 23–24, 26)
Have students form small groups and ask each group to select a current issue in child or adult development that is widely
discussed in the media—for example, child abuse and neglect, effects of infant child care on later adjustment, the obesity
epidemic, sex education programs in schools, work–life balance for families, quality of care for older adults, or end-of-life
decision making. Once each group has selected its topic, ask the groups to consider how each level of the environment may
affect development in this area. Students should also consider bidirectional influences and the role of third parties.
8
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4
True or False: Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories and Recent Theoretical Perspectives (pp. 14–26)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Read each of the following statements and indicate whether it is True (T) or False (F).
_____ 1. According to Freud, in each stage of psychosexual development, parents walk a fine line between permitting
too much or too little gratification of their child’s basic needs.
_____ 2. Both Freud and Erikson pointed out that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s
life situation.
_____ 3. Behaviorism has been praised for acknowledging people’s contributions to their own development.
_____ 4. In Piaget’s theory, as the brain develops and children’s experiences expand, they move through four broad
stages, each characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking.
_____ 5. Research indicates that Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers.
_____ 6. Information-processing researchers view the mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which
information flows.
_____ 7. Developmental neuroscience can identify relationships between changes in the brain and cognitive processing,
but it has little to say about social or emotional development.
_____ 8. According to Vygotsky, social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and
behaving that make up a community’s culture.
_____ 9. The mesosystem consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect
experiences in immediate settings.
_____ 10. Bronfenbrenner characterized the environment as dynamic and ever-changing.
Answers:
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. F
10. T
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.5
Applying Ecological Systems Theory to a Current Issue in Child or Adult Development (pp. 23–24, 26)
Have students form small groups and ask each group to select a current issue in child or adult development that is widely
discussed in the media—for example, child abuse and neglect, effects of infant child care on later adjustment, the obesity
epidemic, sex education programs in schools, work–life balance for families, quality of care for older adults, or end-of-life
decision making. Once each group has selected its topic, ask the groups to consider how each level of the environment may
affect development in this area. Students should also consider bidirectional influences and the role of third parties.
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Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
9
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.6
Research Methods and Designs: Choosing the Best Approach (pp. 28–31, 33–39)
Present the following scenarios to students:
(a) An investigator is interested in studying whether infant child care leads to an insecure attachment bond between
children and their mothers during the first year of life as well as into the preschool years.
(b) An investigator is interested in studying whether a new drug is as effective as diet and exercise in lowering
cholesterol levels in an adult sample.
(c) An investigator is interested in determining whether sociability in children is related to school achievement and
whether this relationship, if any, varies for children in preschool, elementary school, and middle school.
For each scenario, ask students to answer the following questions:
(1) What research method and design would you choose for this study? Why?
(2) Would the results tell you anything about cause and effect? Why or why not?
(3) Would this study involve any special ethical considerations? If so, what are they?
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.7
Research Designs: Comparing Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Designs (pp. 35–37)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Each of the following statements pertains to cross-sectional, longitudinal, or sequential research designs. For each
statement, determine which research design it describes.
1. The researcher studies groups of participants who differ in age at the same point in time.
2. The researcher is interested in whether frequent exposure to violent television programming in early childhood
predicts aggressive and antisocial behavior in adulthood.
3. The researcher wants to investigate psychological well-being in middle adulthood for groups of participants born a
decade apart.
4. Age-related changes may be distorted because of participant dropout, practice effects, or cohort effects.
5. The researcher follows a sequence of samples (two or more age groups), collecting data on them at the same points in
time.
6. This design does not permit the study of individual developmental trends. Age differences may be distorted because of
cohort effects.
7. To investigate age-related changes in adults’ problem-solving skills, the researcher selects three samples—adults in
their thirties, adults in their fifties, and adults in their seventies—and tracks each group for five years.
8. To investigate how children of different ages process traumatic events, such as school violence, the researcher recruits
children who are in grades 6, 9, and 12 in the 2016–2017 school year and interviews them about their responses to the
Boston Marathon bombing in 2013.
9. The researcher studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages.
Answers:
1. Cross-sectional
2. Longitudinal
3. Sequential
4. Longitudinal
5. Sequential
6. Cross-sectional
7. Sequential
8. Cross-sectional
9. Longitudinal
9
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.6
Research Methods and Designs: Choosing the Best Approach (pp. 28–31, 33–39)
Present the following scenarios to students:
(a) An investigator is interested in studying whether infant child care leads to an insecure attachment bond between
children and their mothers during the first year of life as well as into the preschool years.
(b) An investigator is interested in studying whether a new drug is as effective as diet and exercise in lowering
cholesterol levels in an adult sample.
(c) An investigator is interested in determining whether sociability in children is related to school achievement and
whether this relationship, if any, varies for children in preschool, elementary school, and middle school.
For each scenario, ask students to answer the following questions:
(1) What research method and design would you choose for this study? Why?
(2) Would the results tell you anything about cause and effect? Why or why not?
(3) Would this study involve any special ethical considerations? If so, what are they?
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.7
Research Designs: Comparing Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Designs (pp. 35–37)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Each of the following statements pertains to cross-sectional, longitudinal, or sequential research designs. For each
statement, determine which research design it describes.
1. The researcher studies groups of participants who differ in age at the same point in time.
2. The researcher is interested in whether frequent exposure to violent television programming in early childhood
predicts aggressive and antisocial behavior in adulthood.
3. The researcher wants to investigate psychological well-being in middle adulthood for groups of participants born a
decade apart.
4. Age-related changes may be distorted because of participant dropout, practice effects, or cohort effects.
5. The researcher follows a sequence of samples (two or more age groups), collecting data on them at the same points in
time.
6. This design does not permit the study of individual developmental trends. Age differences may be distorted because of
cohort effects.
7. To investigate age-related changes in adults’ problem-solving skills, the researcher selects three samples—adults in
their thirties, adults in their fifties, and adults in their seventies—and tracks each group for five years.
8. To investigate how children of different ages process traumatic events, such as school violence, the researcher recruits
children who are in grades 6, 9, and 12 in the 2016–2017 school year and interviews them about their responses to the
Boston Marathon bombing in 2013.
9. The researcher studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages.
Answers:
1. Cross-sectional
2. Longitudinal
3. Sequential
4. Longitudinal
5. Sequential
6. Cross-sectional
7. Sequential
8. Cross-sectional
9. Longitudinal
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
10
ASK YOURSELF. . .
CONNECT: Distinguish age-graded, history-graded, and nonnormative influences on lifespan development. Cite an
example of each in Sofie’s story. (pp. 3–5, 9–12)
Age-graded influences are events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and
how long they last. As a baby, Sofie experienced age-graded influences when she engaged in exploratory play, crawled, and
pulled herself up, as would be expected. She entered elementary school at the typical age.
History-graded influences are forces unique to a particular era. For Sofie, the rise of the Nazis and World War II had a
significant impact on the events of her life. Her family had to flee Germany, eventually moving to the United States. She also
lost many of her loved ones in the Holocaust. In the United States, Sofie was able to launch a teaching career in midlife, which
might not have been possible in another time or place.
Sofie’s story also includes several nonnormative influences—irregular events that do not follow a predictable timetable. By
adolescence, she had become an accomplished pianist. And although most German girls of her time married by age 20, Sofie
decided to postpone marriage and childbearing in favor of attending university. At age 50, after returning to school for her
teaching credential, she launched a career—not a typical path for a woman of her generation. Finally, Sofie’s struggle with
cancer and her premature death represent events that were unique to her experience.
APPLY: Anna, a high school counselor, devised a program that integrates classroom learning with vocational training
to help adolescents at risk for school dropout stay in school and transition to work life. What is Anna’s position on
stability versus plasticity in development? Explain. (pp. 7, 9)
Anna’s program reflects her belief that development has substantial plasticity throughout life—that it is open to change in
response to influential experiences. First, Anna takes the position that environmental influences, not just heredity, are
important. Second, by devising a program for adolescents, she rejects the view that early experiences establish a lifelong pattern
of behavior that cannot be fully overcome by later, more positive experiences. Anna, taking a more optimistic view, believes
that high school students who are at risk for dropout will benefit from the program she has developed, because it will provide
positive experiences that will enable them to overcome the effects of the negative events of their first few years.
REFLECT: Describe an aspect of your development that differs from a parent’s or a grandparent’s when he or she was
your age. Using influences highlighted by the lifespan perspective, explain this difference in development. (pp. 7–12)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Although social learning theory focuses on social development and Piaget’s theory on cognitive
development, each has enhanced our understanding of other domains. Mention an additional domain addressed by each
theory. (pp. 17–19)
Social learning theory emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of
development. From its original emphasis on social development, the theory has evolved to stress the importance of cognition,
or thinking. As a result, the most recent revision of this theory is now known as a social-cognitive rather than a social learning
approach. In addition to explaining children’s social development, social-cognitive theory provides insight into how, as
individuals acquire attitudes, values, and convictions about themselves, they control their own learning and behavior.
Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, best known for its emphasis on the stages of cognitive development, also
explores children’s reasoning about the social world. It has sparked a wealth of research on children’s conceptions of
themselves, other people, and human relationships—all aspects of the social/emotional domain.
APPLY: A 4-year-old becomes frightened of the dark and refuses to go to sleep at night. How would a psychoanalyst
and a behaviorist differ in their views of how this problem developed? (pp. 14, 16)
According to the psychoanalytic perspective, children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts
between biological drives and social expectations. In this view, fear of the dark reflects an unconscious motivation or deep-
seated anxiety within the child. A psychoanalyst might conclude, for example, that the child’s fear really represents anxiety
about nighttime separation from the parent. Once the anxiety is resolved, the fear will subside.
In contrast, behaviorists look at the effects on behavior of directly observable events, not at the inner workings of the mind.
From a behaviorist perspective, a child would be afraid of the dark as a result of previous negative experiences in the dark.
Perhaps the child heard a sudden, loud noise at night or was frightened by the visual images of a nightmare. On the basis of
these experiences, the child would be conditioned to respond fearfully to being in the dark.
10
ASK YOURSELF. . .
CONNECT: Distinguish age-graded, history-graded, and nonnormative influences on lifespan development. Cite an
example of each in Sofie’s story. (pp. 3–5, 9–12)
Age-graded influences are events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and
how long they last. As a baby, Sofie experienced age-graded influences when she engaged in exploratory play, crawled, and
pulled herself up, as would be expected. She entered elementary school at the typical age.
History-graded influences are forces unique to a particular era. For Sofie, the rise of the Nazis and World War II had a
significant impact on the events of her life. Her family had to flee Germany, eventually moving to the United States. She also
lost many of her loved ones in the Holocaust. In the United States, Sofie was able to launch a teaching career in midlife, which
might not have been possible in another time or place.
Sofie’s story also includes several nonnormative influences—irregular events that do not follow a predictable timetable. By
adolescence, she had become an accomplished pianist. And although most German girls of her time married by age 20, Sofie
decided to postpone marriage and childbearing in favor of attending university. At age 50, after returning to school for her
teaching credential, she launched a career—not a typical path for a woman of her generation. Finally, Sofie’s struggle with
cancer and her premature death represent events that were unique to her experience.
APPLY: Anna, a high school counselor, devised a program that integrates classroom learning with vocational training
to help adolescents at risk for school dropout stay in school and transition to work life. What is Anna’s position on
stability versus plasticity in development? Explain. (pp. 7, 9)
Anna’s program reflects her belief that development has substantial plasticity throughout life—that it is open to change in
response to influential experiences. First, Anna takes the position that environmental influences, not just heredity, are
important. Second, by devising a program for adolescents, she rejects the view that early experiences establish a lifelong pattern
of behavior that cannot be fully overcome by later, more positive experiences. Anna, taking a more optimistic view, believes
that high school students who are at risk for dropout will benefit from the program she has developed, because it will provide
positive experiences that will enable them to overcome the effects of the negative events of their first few years.
REFLECT: Describe an aspect of your development that differs from a parent’s or a grandparent’s when he or she was
your age. Using influences highlighted by the lifespan perspective, explain this difference in development. (pp. 7–12)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Although social learning theory focuses on social development and Piaget’s theory on cognitive
development, each has enhanced our understanding of other domains. Mention an additional domain addressed by each
theory. (pp. 17–19)
Social learning theory emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of
development. From its original emphasis on social development, the theory has evolved to stress the importance of cognition,
or thinking. As a result, the most recent revision of this theory is now known as a social-cognitive rather than a social learning
approach. In addition to explaining children’s social development, social-cognitive theory provides insight into how, as
individuals acquire attitudes, values, and convictions about themselves, they control their own learning and behavior.
Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, best known for its emphasis on the stages of cognitive development, also
explores children’s reasoning about the social world. It has sparked a wealth of research on children’s conceptions of
themselves, other people, and human relationships—all aspects of the social/emotional domain.
APPLY: A 4-year-old becomes frightened of the dark and refuses to go to sleep at night. How would a psychoanalyst
and a behaviorist differ in their views of how this problem developed? (pp. 14, 16)
According to the psychoanalytic perspective, children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts
between biological drives and social expectations. In this view, fear of the dark reflects an unconscious motivation or deep-
seated anxiety within the child. A psychoanalyst might conclude, for example, that the child’s fear really represents anxiety
about nighttime separation from the parent. Once the anxiety is resolved, the fear will subside.
In contrast, behaviorists look at the effects on behavior of directly observable events, not at the inner workings of the mind.
From a behaviorist perspective, a child would be afraid of the dark as a result of previous negative experiences in the dark.
Perhaps the child heard a sudden, loud noise at night or was frightened by the visual images of a nightmare. On the basis of
these experiences, the child would be conditioned to respond fearfully to being in the dark.
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Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
11
REFLECT: Illustrate Bandura’s ideas by describing a personal experience in which you observed and received
feedback from another person that strengthened your sense of self-efficacy—belief that your abilities and
characteristics will help you succeed. (p. 17)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Is ecological systems theory compatible with assumptions of the lifespan perspective—development as
lifelong, multidirectional, highly plastic, and influenced by multiple, interacting forces? Explain. (pp. 7–12, 23–24, 26)
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory—which views the person as developing within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment—is consistent with the assumptions of the lifespan
perspective. In this view, the environment is a series of nested structures, including but also extending beyond the home,
school, neighborhood, and workplace settings in which people spend their everyday lives. Each layer joins with the others to
powerfully affect development.
Like the lifespan perspective, ecological systems theory stresses that all relationships are bidirectional. For example, adults
affect children’s behavior, but children’s biologically and socially influenced characteristics—their physical attributes,
personalities, and capacities—also affect adults’ behavior. Further, the temporal dimension of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the
chronosystem—representing the dynamic, ever-changing nature of environmental influences—underscores the lifelong
plasticity of development, in which the person and the environment form a network of interdependent effects.
APPLY: Mario wants to find out precisely how children of different ages recall stories. Desiree is interested in how
adult–child communication in different cultures influences children’s storytelling. Which theoretical perspective has
Mario probably chosen? How about Desiree? Explain. (pp. 19–20, 22–23)
Mario has probably chosen an information-processing perspective. Using this approach, he will likely design a flowchart to
map the precise steps children use to recall stories. Then he will analyze each step separately so that he can compare them in
detail as they apply to children of different ages.
Desiree is more likely to choose a sociocultural perspective, focusing on how culture—the values, beliefs, customs, and
skills of a social group—is transmitted to the next generation through social interaction. For example, she might compare the
ways in which children in different cultures engage in storytelling with adults and older peers and how these interactions help
them develop the storytelling skills that are valued within their culture.
REFLECT: To illustrate the chronosystem in ecological systems theory, select an important event from your childhood,
such as a move to a new neighborhood, a class with an inspiring teacher, or parental divorce. How did the event affect
you? How might its impact have differed had you been five years younger? How about five years older? (p. 26)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: What strengths and limitations do the clinical, or case study, method and ethnography have in common?
(pp. 30–31)
Both the clinical method and ethnography are descriptive, qualitative techniques. Whereas the aim of the clinical method is
to obtain as complete a picture as possible of a single individual’s psychological functioning, ethnography is directed toward
understanding a culture or a distinct social group. A major strength of both methods is that they yield richly detailed
descriptions that offer insights into many aspects of experience and the many factors affecting development. A limitation of
both methods is that investigators’ cultural values or theoretical preferences may lead them to observe selectively or
misinterpret what they see. Another limitation of both methods is that findings cannot be assumed to generalize to other
individuals or cultures.
APPLY: A researcher wants to study the thoughts and feelings of parents on active duty in the military and those of
their school-age and adolescent children. Which method should she use? Why? (p. 28, 29–30)
The clinical interview is the method best suited to investigating this research question, because the researcher wants to
learn about participants’ thoughts and feelings. The clinical interview permits individuals to display their thoughts in terms that
are as close as possible to the way they think in everyday life. This method also provides a large amount of information in a
fairly brief period.
The researcher might also consider using a structured interview, in which each participant is asked the same set of
questions in the same way. The structured interview eliminates the risk that variations in responses may reflect the manner of
interviewing rather than real differences in the way people think about a topic. It is also more efficient than the clinical
11
REFLECT: Illustrate Bandura’s ideas by describing a personal experience in which you observed and received
feedback from another person that strengthened your sense of self-efficacy—belief that your abilities and
characteristics will help you succeed. (p. 17)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Is ecological systems theory compatible with assumptions of the lifespan perspective—development as
lifelong, multidirectional, highly plastic, and influenced by multiple, interacting forces? Explain. (pp. 7–12, 23–24, 26)
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory—which views the person as developing within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment—is consistent with the assumptions of the lifespan
perspective. In this view, the environment is a series of nested structures, including but also extending beyond the home,
school, neighborhood, and workplace settings in which people spend their everyday lives. Each layer joins with the others to
powerfully affect development.
Like the lifespan perspective, ecological systems theory stresses that all relationships are bidirectional. For example, adults
affect children’s behavior, but children’s biologically and socially influenced characteristics—their physical attributes,
personalities, and capacities—also affect adults’ behavior. Further, the temporal dimension of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the
chronosystem—representing the dynamic, ever-changing nature of environmental influences—underscores the lifelong
plasticity of development, in which the person and the environment form a network of interdependent effects.
APPLY: Mario wants to find out precisely how children of different ages recall stories. Desiree is interested in how
adult–child communication in different cultures influences children’s storytelling. Which theoretical perspective has
Mario probably chosen? How about Desiree? Explain. (pp. 19–20, 22–23)
Mario has probably chosen an information-processing perspective. Using this approach, he will likely design a flowchart to
map the precise steps children use to recall stories. Then he will analyze each step separately so that he can compare them in
detail as they apply to children of different ages.
Desiree is more likely to choose a sociocultural perspective, focusing on how culture—the values, beliefs, customs, and
skills of a social group—is transmitted to the next generation through social interaction. For example, she might compare the
ways in which children in different cultures engage in storytelling with adults and older peers and how these interactions help
them develop the storytelling skills that are valued within their culture.
REFLECT: To illustrate the chronosystem in ecological systems theory, select an important event from your childhood,
such as a move to a new neighborhood, a class with an inspiring teacher, or parental divorce. How did the event affect
you? How might its impact have differed had you been five years younger? How about five years older? (p. 26)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: What strengths and limitations do the clinical, or case study, method and ethnography have in common?
(pp. 30–31)
Both the clinical method and ethnography are descriptive, qualitative techniques. Whereas the aim of the clinical method is
to obtain as complete a picture as possible of a single individual’s psychological functioning, ethnography is directed toward
understanding a culture or a distinct social group. A major strength of both methods is that they yield richly detailed
descriptions that offer insights into many aspects of experience and the many factors affecting development. A limitation of
both methods is that investigators’ cultural values or theoretical preferences may lead them to observe selectively or
misinterpret what they see. Another limitation of both methods is that findings cannot be assumed to generalize to other
individuals or cultures.
APPLY: A researcher wants to study the thoughts and feelings of parents on active duty in the military and those of
their school-age and adolescent children. Which method should she use? Why? (p. 28, 29–30)
The clinical interview is the method best suited to investigating this research question, because the researcher wants to
learn about participants’ thoughts and feelings. The clinical interview permits individuals to display their thoughts in terms that
are as close as possible to the way they think in everyday life. This method also provides a large amount of information in a
fairly brief period.
The researcher might also consider using a structured interview, in which each participant is asked the same set of
questions in the same way. The structured interview eliminates the risk that variations in responses may reflect the manner of
interviewing rather than real differences in the way people think about a topic. It is also more efficient than the clinical
Loading page 12...
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
12
interview: Answers are briefer, and researchers can obtain written responses from an entire group at the same time. However,
structured interviews do not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview.
REFLECT: Reread the description of nonnormative influences on page 10, and cite an example from your own life.
Which method would be best suited to studying the impact of such a nonnormative event on development?
(pp. 28, 29–30)
A self-report method—either the clinical interview or the clinical, or case study, method—would be well-suited to studying
the impact of a nonnormative event on development. These methods gather richly detailed information about an individual,
including events that are unique to a single person.
CONNECT: Review the study of the Family Check-Up, described on page 34. Explain how it combines an experimental
with a developmental design. What are the independent and dependent variables? Is its developmental approach
longitudinal or cross-sectional? (pp. 33–35)
This study used an experimental design in which researchers randomly assigned ethnically diverse, poverty-stricken
families with a 2-year-old child to either a brief intervention condition (the Family Check-Up) or a no-intervention control
group. The independent variable was the Family Check-Up intervention, which consisted of three home-based sessions in
which a consultant gave parents feedback about their child-rearing practices and their child’s adjustment, explored parents’
willingness to improve, identified community services appropriate to each family’s needs, and offered follow-up sessions on
parenting practices and other concerns. Researchers were interested in seeing whether this intervention would lead to gains in
positive parenting, which in turn would predict a reduction in child problem behaviors and higher academic achievement when
the children reached school age.
The developmental approach of the Family Check-Up study was longitudinal: The same participants were studied at
different points in time to determine whether the intervention was effective.
APPLY: A researcher compares older adults with chronic heart disease to those with no major health problems and
finds that the first group scores lower on mental tests. Can the researcher conclude that heart disease causes a decline in
intellectual functioning in late adulthood? Explain. (pp. 31, 33)
Because this study uses a correlational design, the researcher cannot conclude that heart disease causes declines in
intellectual functioning. The study does not reveal whether heart disease is the cause of the lower mental test scores or if,
instead, a third variable—for example, poor diet and lack of exercise—is causing both heart disease and declines in intellectual
functioning in late adulthood.
REFLECT: Suppose a researcher asks you to enroll your baby in a 10-year longitudinal study. What factors would lead
you to agree and to stay involved? Do your answers shed light on why longitudinal studies often have biased samples?
(pp. 35–36)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Review the field experiment on the Family Check-Up on page 34. Why is it ethically important for the
researchers to offer the intervention to the no-intervention control group after completion of the study? (Hint: Refer to
Table 1.7 on page 38.) (pp. 37–39)
One of the research rights established by the American Psychological Association states that when experimental treatments
under investigation are believed to be beneficial, participants in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial
treatments (if available) or to the same treatment (if found to be effective) once the research is complete. In this case, families
assigned to the Family Check-Up, but not controls, gained in positive parenting, which predicted a reduction in child problem
behaviors. Once these favorable outcomes were known, it was ethically important that families in the no-intervention control
group be given the opportunity to participate in the intervention after the study was complete.
APPLY: As a researcher gathers observations of the activities of several older adults with cognitive impairments in a
nursing home, one resident says, “Stop watching me!” How should the researcher respond, and why? (pp. 37–39)
The rights of research participants include the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm and the right to
discontinue participation in the research at any time. Participants also have the right of informed consent; for older adults with
cognitive impairments, this would include the appointment of a surrogate decision maker to act on their behalf. However, even
if informed consent was obtained before the study began, the researcher is ethically obligated to end the observation at the
participant’s request.
12
interview: Answers are briefer, and researchers can obtain written responses from an entire group at the same time. However,
structured interviews do not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview.
REFLECT: Reread the description of nonnormative influences on page 10, and cite an example from your own life.
Which method would be best suited to studying the impact of such a nonnormative event on development?
(pp. 28, 29–30)
A self-report method—either the clinical interview or the clinical, or case study, method—would be well-suited to studying
the impact of a nonnormative event on development. These methods gather richly detailed information about an individual,
including events that are unique to a single person.
CONNECT: Review the study of the Family Check-Up, described on page 34. Explain how it combines an experimental
with a developmental design. What are the independent and dependent variables? Is its developmental approach
longitudinal or cross-sectional? (pp. 33–35)
This study used an experimental design in which researchers randomly assigned ethnically diverse, poverty-stricken
families with a 2-year-old child to either a brief intervention condition (the Family Check-Up) or a no-intervention control
group. The independent variable was the Family Check-Up intervention, which consisted of three home-based sessions in
which a consultant gave parents feedback about their child-rearing practices and their child’s adjustment, explored parents’
willingness to improve, identified community services appropriate to each family’s needs, and offered follow-up sessions on
parenting practices and other concerns. Researchers were interested in seeing whether this intervention would lead to gains in
positive parenting, which in turn would predict a reduction in child problem behaviors and higher academic achievement when
the children reached school age.
The developmental approach of the Family Check-Up study was longitudinal: The same participants were studied at
different points in time to determine whether the intervention was effective.
APPLY: A researcher compares older adults with chronic heart disease to those with no major health problems and
finds that the first group scores lower on mental tests. Can the researcher conclude that heart disease causes a decline in
intellectual functioning in late adulthood? Explain. (pp. 31, 33)
Because this study uses a correlational design, the researcher cannot conclude that heart disease causes declines in
intellectual functioning. The study does not reveal whether heart disease is the cause of the lower mental test scores or if,
instead, a third variable—for example, poor diet and lack of exercise—is causing both heart disease and declines in intellectual
functioning in late adulthood.
REFLECT: Suppose a researcher asks you to enroll your baby in a 10-year longitudinal study. What factors would lead
you to agree and to stay involved? Do your answers shed light on why longitudinal studies often have biased samples?
(pp. 35–36)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Review the field experiment on the Family Check-Up on page 34. Why is it ethically important for the
researchers to offer the intervention to the no-intervention control group after completion of the study? (Hint: Refer to
Table 1.7 on page 38.) (pp. 37–39)
One of the research rights established by the American Psychological Association states that when experimental treatments
under investigation are believed to be beneficial, participants in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial
treatments (if available) or to the same treatment (if found to be effective) once the research is complete. In this case, families
assigned to the Family Check-Up, but not controls, gained in positive parenting, which predicted a reduction in child problem
behaviors. Once these favorable outcomes were known, it was ethically important that families in the no-intervention control
group be given the opportunity to participate in the intervention after the study was complete.
APPLY: As a researcher gathers observations of the activities of several older adults with cognitive impairments in a
nursing home, one resident says, “Stop watching me!” How should the researcher respond, and why? (pp. 37–39)
The rights of research participants include the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm and the right to
discontinue participation in the research at any time. Participants also have the right of informed consent; for older adults with
cognitive impairments, this would include the appointment of a surrogate decision maker to act on their behalf. However, even
if informed consent was obtained before the study began, the researcher is ethically obligated to end the observation at the
participant’s request.
Loading page 13...
Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies
13
REFLECT: What ethical safeguards do you consider vital in conducting research that requires deception of children?
(p. 39)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
MEDIA MATERIALS
For details on individual video segments that accompany the DVD for Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition,
please see the DVD Guide for Explorations in Lifespan Development. The DVD and DVD Guide are available through your
Pearson sales representative.
Additional DVDs and streaming videos that may be useful in your class are listed below. They are not available through
your Pearson sales representative, but you can order them directly from the distributor. (See contact information at the end of
this manual.)
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock ... and Beyond (2009, Films Media Group, 22 min.). An introduction
to major child development theorists. Educational resources are available online.
Ethics in Psychological Research (2013, Insight Media/Promedian, 19 min.). The importance of ethics in psychological
research, including examples of research studies that have raised ethical issues.
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007, Films Media Group, 40 min.). An exploration of attachment
theory. Part of the series Giants of Psychology. Educational resources are available online.
Lev Vygotsky: One Man’s Legacy Through His Life and Theory (2009, PHD Lowe Productions, 3 sections, 1 hr. 53 min.). The
life and work of Lev Vygotsky. A 35-minute version is also available.
Nonexperimental Research Methods in Psychology (2006, Films Media Group, 34 min.). The advantages and limitations of
nonexperimental research methods, including questionnaires, interviews, and naturalistic observation . Part of the series
Understanding Psychology.
Psychology Research in Context (2008, Films Media Group, 29 min.). An overview of selected principles of science that are
used in psychological research. Educational resources are available online.
Research Methods in the Social Sciences (2005, Films Media Group, 4-part series, 23–46 min. each). An exploration of
qualitative and quantitative research methods used in the social sciences. Instructor’s guides are available online.
Study of the Child: Theories of Development (2007, Films Media Group, 2-part series, 16–27 min. each). A survey of the
theories of influential thinkers in child development.
13
REFLECT: What ethical safeguards do you consider vital in conducting research that requires deception of children?
(p. 39)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
MEDIA MATERIALS
For details on individual video segments that accompany the DVD for Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition,
please see the DVD Guide for Explorations in Lifespan Development. The DVD and DVD Guide are available through your
Pearson sales representative.
Additional DVDs and streaming videos that may be useful in your class are listed below. They are not available through
your Pearson sales representative, but you can order them directly from the distributor. (See contact information at the end of
this manual.)
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock ... and Beyond (2009, Films Media Group, 22 min.). An introduction
to major child development theorists. Educational resources are available online.
Ethics in Psychological Research (2013, Insight Media/Promedian, 19 min.). The importance of ethics in psychological
research, including examples of research studies that have raised ethical issues.
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007, Films Media Group, 40 min.). An exploration of attachment
theory. Part of the series Giants of Psychology. Educational resources are available online.
Lev Vygotsky: One Man’s Legacy Through His Life and Theory (2009, PHD Lowe Productions, 3 sections, 1 hr. 53 min.). The
life and work of Lev Vygotsky. A 35-minute version is also available.
Nonexperimental Research Methods in Psychology (2006, Films Media Group, 34 min.). The advantages and limitations of
nonexperimental research methods, including questionnaires, interviews, and naturalistic observation . Part of the series
Understanding Psychology.
Psychology Research in Context (2008, Films Media Group, 29 min.). An overview of selected principles of science that are
used in psychological research. Educational resources are available online.
Research Methods in the Social Sciences (2005, Films Media Group, 4-part series, 23–46 min. each). An exploration of
qualitative and quantitative research methods used in the social sciences. Instructor’s guides are available online.
Study of the Child: Theories of Development (2007, Films Media Group, 2-part series, 16–27 min. each). A survey of the
theories of influential thinkers in child development.
Loading page 14...
15
CHAPTER 2
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
Genetic Foundations pp. 44–51
The Genetic Code • The Sex Cells • Boy or
Girl? • Multiple Offspring • Patterns of Gene–
Gene Interactions • Chromosomal
Abnormalities
Learning Objectives 2.1–2.3
Learning Activities 2.1–2.3
Ask Yourself p. 51
Test Bank Items 1–51, 126–127
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Reproductive Choices pp. 51–56
Genetic Counseling • Prenatal Diagnosis and
Fetal Medicine • Adoption
Learning Objective 2.4
Learning Activity 2.4
Ask Yourself p. 56
Test Bank Items 52–65
Environmental Contexts for Development
pp. 56–66
The Family • Socioeconomic Status and
Family Functioning • Poverty • Affluence •
Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and
Schools • The Cultural Context
Learning Objective 2.5
Lecture Enhancement 2.1
Learning Activities 2.5–2.7
Ask Yourself p. 66
Test Bank Items 66–99, 128–129
Understanding the Relationship Between
Heredity and Environment pp. 66–72
The Question, “How Much?” • The Question,
“How?”
Learning Objective 2.6
Lecture Enhancement 2.2
Learning Activities 2.2, 2.8–2.9
Ask Yourself p. 72
Test Bank Items 100–125, 130–131
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter examines the foundations of development: heredity and environment. At conception, chromosomes containing
genetic information from each parent combine to determine characteristics that make us human and also contribute to
individual differences in appearance and behavior. Serious developmental problems often result from inheritance of harmful
recessive alleles and from chromosomal abnormalities. Genetic counseling and prenatal diagnostic methods can help people
make informed decisions about the best reproductive options.
The environment in which human development takes place is a many-layered set of influences. The family is the first and
longest-lasting context for development. Other important influences are socioeconomic status, neighborhoods, schools, cultural
values and practices, and public policies affecting individuals at various stages of the lifespan.
Behavioral genetics examines the contributions of nature and nurture to diversity in human traits and abilities. Researchers
increasingly regard heredity and environment as inseparable and focus on examining how nature and nurture work together.
Heritability estimates confirm that heredity contributes to a broad array of human traits but provide no precise information on
gene–environment interaction, or how children might respond to environments designed to help them develop as far as
possible.
According to the concept of gene–environment correlation, our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
Epigenesis refers to development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the
environment. One mechanism through which these exchanges occur is methylation, a biochemical process through which
environment can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence. Overall, development is best understood as a
series of complex exchanges between nature and nurture.
CHAPTER 2
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE
Chapter Outline Instruction Ideas Supplements
Genetic Foundations pp. 44–51
The Genetic Code • The Sex Cells • Boy or
Girl? • Multiple Offspring • Patterns of Gene–
Gene Interactions • Chromosomal
Abnormalities
Learning Objectives 2.1–2.3
Learning Activities 2.1–2.3
Ask Yourself p. 51
Test Bank Items 1–51, 126–127
(Please contact your Pearson sales
representative for a wide range of video
offerings available to adopters.)
Reproductive Choices pp. 51–56
Genetic Counseling • Prenatal Diagnosis and
Fetal Medicine • Adoption
Learning Objective 2.4
Learning Activity 2.4
Ask Yourself p. 56
Test Bank Items 52–65
Environmental Contexts for Development
pp. 56–66
The Family • Socioeconomic Status and
Family Functioning • Poverty • Affluence •
Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and
Schools • The Cultural Context
Learning Objective 2.5
Lecture Enhancement 2.1
Learning Activities 2.5–2.7
Ask Yourself p. 66
Test Bank Items 66–99, 128–129
Understanding the Relationship Between
Heredity and Environment pp. 66–72
The Question, “How Much?” • The Question,
“How?”
Learning Objective 2.6
Lecture Enhancement 2.2
Learning Activities 2.2, 2.8–2.9
Ask Yourself p. 72
Test Bank Items 100–125, 130–131
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter examines the foundations of development: heredity and environment. At conception, chromosomes containing
genetic information from each parent combine to determine characteristics that make us human and also contribute to
individual differences in appearance and behavior. Serious developmental problems often result from inheritance of harmful
recessive alleles and from chromosomal abnormalities. Genetic counseling and prenatal diagnostic methods can help people
make informed decisions about the best reproductive options.
The environment in which human development takes place is a many-layered set of influences. The family is the first and
longest-lasting context for development. Other important influences are socioeconomic status, neighborhoods, schools, cultural
values and practices, and public policies affecting individuals at various stages of the lifespan.
Behavioral genetics examines the contributions of nature and nurture to diversity in human traits and abilities. Researchers
increasingly regard heredity and environment as inseparable and focus on examining how nature and nurture work together.
Heritability estimates confirm that heredity contributes to a broad array of human traits but provide no precise information on
gene–environment interaction, or how children might respond to environments designed to help them develop as far as
possible.
According to the concept of gene–environment correlation, our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
Epigenesis refers to development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the
environment. One mechanism through which these exchanges occur is methylation, a biochemical process through which
environment can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence. Overall, development is best understood as a
series of complex exchanges between nature and nurture.
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Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations
17
II. REPRODUCTIVE CHOICES (pp. 51–56)
• Genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis help people make informed decisions about conceiving, carrying a
pregnancy to term, or adopting a child.
• Genetic counseling helps couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose
the best course of action in view of risks and family goals.
• New genomewide testing methods enable genetic counselors to estimate risk for many genetic disorders.
• Increasing numbers of individuals are turning to alternative methods of conception, such as donor insemination, in
vitro fertilization, and surrogate motherhood.
• Prenatal diagnostic methods, including amniocentesis, ultrasound, and maternal blood analysis, permit detection of
developmental problems before birth and have led to advances in fetal medicine.
• Advances in genetic engineering offer hope for correcting hereditary defects.
• Because the availability of healthy babies has declined, adults in North America and Western Europe who choose
adoption are increasingly adopting from other countries or accepting children who are past infancy or who have
known developmental problems.
• Adopted children and adolescents tend to have more emotional and learning difficulties than other children, a
difference that increases with the child’s age at the time of adoption. However, most adopted children fare well.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT (pp. 56–66)
• The family is the first and longest-lasting context for development. Other environmental influences include friends,
neighbors, school, workplace, and community and religious organizations.
• Environments that powerfully affect development include not only the microsystem but also the macrosystem, or broad
social climate of society.
• Contemporary researchers view the family as a network of interdependent relationships in which the behaviors of each
family member affect those of others through bidirectional influences.
• In addition to direct influences between family members, interaction between any two members is affected by third
parties. For example, mothers and fathers who have a warm, considerate marital relationship are more likely to engage
in effective coparenting.
• The family is a dynamic, ever-changing system of relationships, influenced by life events, the developmental status of
each family member, and historical time period.
• Socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to timing of marriage and parenthood, to family size, and to child-rearing
values and expectations.
• Poverty affects about 15 percent of Americans. Those hit hardest are parents under age 25 with young children, ethnic
minorities, women, and older adults who live alone.
• Of all Western nations, the United States has the highest percentage of extremely poor children. They are more likely
than others to experience lifelong poor physical health, persistent deficits in cognitive development and academic
achievement, high school dropout, mental illness, and impulsivity, aggression, and antisocial behavior.
• A related problem is homelessness. Most homeless families consist of women with children under age 5, many of
whom suffer from developmental delays and chronic emotional stress.
• When affluent parents fail to engage in family interaction and parenting that promote favorable development, their
children are more likely than youths in general to engage in alcohol and drug use, commit delinquent acts, and report
high levels of anxiety and depression.
• Strong family ties to the surrounding social context reduce stress and enhance adjustment. When community life is
disrupted, family violence, child abuse and neglect, adult criminal behavior, and other social problems are especially
high.
• Neighborhood resources and social ties play an important part in children’s development and also affect the well-being
of adults, especially older adults.
• Schools affect many aspects of development through their physical environments, educational philosophies, and social
life.
• The
17
II. REPRODUCTIVE CHOICES (pp. 51–56)
• Genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis help people make informed decisions about conceiving, carrying a
pregnancy to term, or adopting a child.
• Genetic counseling helps couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose
the best course of action in view of risks and family goals.
• New genomewide testing methods enable genetic counselors to estimate risk for many genetic disorders.
• Increasing numbers of individuals are turning to alternative methods of conception, such as donor insemination, in
vitro fertilization, and surrogate motherhood.
• Prenatal diagnostic methods, including amniocentesis, ultrasound, and maternal blood analysis, permit detection of
developmental problems before birth and have led to advances in fetal medicine.
• Advances in genetic engineering offer hope for correcting hereditary defects.
• Because the availability of healthy babies has declined, adults in North America and Western Europe who choose
adoption are increasingly adopting from other countries or accepting children who are past infancy or who have
known developmental problems.
• Adopted children and adolescents tend to have more emotional and learning difficulties than other children, a
difference that increases with the child’s age at the time of adoption. However, most adopted children fare well.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT (pp. 56–66)
• The family is the first and longest-lasting context for development. Other environmental influences include friends,
neighbors, school, workplace, and community and religious organizations.
• Environments that powerfully affect development include not only the microsystem but also the macrosystem, or broad
social climate of society.
• Contemporary researchers view the family as a network of interdependent relationships in which the behaviors of each
family member affect those of others through bidirectional influences.
• In addition to direct influences between family members, interaction between any two members is affected by third
parties. For example, mothers and fathers who have a warm, considerate marital relationship are more likely to engage
in effective coparenting.
• The family is a dynamic, ever-changing system of relationships, influenced by life events, the developmental status of
each family member, and historical time period.
• Socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to timing of marriage and parenthood, to family size, and to child-rearing
values and expectations.
• Poverty affects about 15 percent of Americans. Those hit hardest are parents under age 25 with young children, ethnic
minorities, women, and older adults who live alone.
• Of all Western nations, the United States has the highest percentage of extremely poor children. They are more likely
than others to experience lifelong poor physical health, persistent deficits in cognitive development and academic
achievement, high school dropout, mental illness, and impulsivity, aggression, and antisocial behavior.
• A related problem is homelessness. Most homeless families consist of women with children under age 5, many of
whom suffer from developmental delays and chronic emotional stress.
• When affluent parents fail to engage in family interaction and parenting that promote favorable development, their
children are more likely than youths in general to engage in alcohol and drug use, commit delinquent acts, and report
high levels of anxiety and depression.
• Strong family ties to the surrounding social context reduce stress and enhance adjustment. When community life is
disrupted, family violence, child abuse and neglect, adult criminal behavior, and other social problems are especially
high.
• Neighborhood resources and social ties play an important part in children’s development and also affect the well-being
of adults, especially older adults.
• Schools affect many aspects of development through their physical environments, educational philosophies, and social
life.
• The
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
18
• Cultures can be compared on two broad sets of values: collectivism (which emphasizes group goals and interdependent
qualities) versus individualism (which emphasizes independence). The United States is more individualistic than most
Western European countries.
• Nations attempt to solve widespread social problems through public policies designed to improve current conditions.
• Compared with other industrialized nations, the United States does not rank well on key measures of children’s health
and well-being, in part because of cultural values of self-reliance and privacy.
• Although the U.S. aging population is financially much better off now than in the past, aging adults in the United
States are less well off than those in many other Western nations, which provide more generous, government-funded
income supplements to older adults.
• Influential interest groups devoted to improving the well-being of children or older adults have emerged.
• Researchers are collaborating with community and government agencies to enhance the social relevance of their
investigations.
IV. UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT (pp. 66–72)
• Behavioral genetics is a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity of human
traits and abilities.
• A growing consensus of investigators believes that the important question is how nature and nurture work together.
• Heritability estimates, which measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific
population are due to genetic factors, are obtained from kinship studies, which compare the characteristics of family
members.
• Research supports a moderate role for heredity in intelligence and in personality.
• Heritability estimates tend to exaggerate the role of heredity, and they can easily be misapplied, as when high
heritabilities have been used to suggest a genetic basis for ethnic differences in intelligence.
• Today, most researchers view development as the result of the dynamic interplay between heredity and environment.
• Gene–environment interaction means that because of their genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness
to qualities of the environment.
• The concept of gene–environment correlation states that our genes influence the environments to which we are
exposed. In passive correlation, parents provide their children with environments influenced by their own heredity. In
evocative correlation, children evoke responses influenced by the child’s heredity, and these responses strengthen the
child’s original style.
• At older ages, active gene–environment correlation is seen in niche-picking—the tendency to actively choose
environments that complement our heredity.
• Accumulating evidence reveals that the relationship between heredity and environment is bidirectional: Genes affect
people’s behavior and experiences, but their experiences and behavior also affect gene expression.
• Epigenesis refers to development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of
the environment.
• Researchers in epigenetics are beginning to clarify the precise mechanisms through which environment can alter gene
18
• Cultures can be compared on two broad sets of values: collectivism (which emphasizes group goals and interdependent
qualities) versus individualism (which emphasizes independence). The United States is more individualistic than most
Western European countries.
• Nations attempt to solve widespread social problems through public policies designed to improve current conditions.
• Compared with other industrialized nations, the United States does not rank well on key measures of children’s health
and well-being, in part because of cultural values of self-reliance and privacy.
• Although the U.S. aging population is financially much better off now than in the past, aging adults in the United
States are less well off than those in many other Western nations, which provide more generous, government-funded
income supplements to older adults.
• Influential interest groups devoted to improving the well-being of children or older adults have emerged.
• Researchers are collaborating with community and government agencies to enhance the social relevance of their
investigations.
IV. UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT (pp. 66–72)
• Behavioral genetics is a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to the diversity of human
traits and abilities.
• A growing consensus of investigators believes that the important question is how nature and nurture work together.
• Heritability estimates, which measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific
population are due to genetic factors, are obtained from kinship studies, which compare the characteristics of family
members.
• Research supports a moderate role for heredity in intelligence and in personality.
• Heritability estimates tend to exaggerate the role of heredity, and they can easily be misapplied, as when high
heritabilities have been used to suggest a genetic basis for ethnic differences in intelligence.
• Today, most researchers view development as the result of the dynamic interplay between heredity and environment.
• Gene–environment interaction means that because of their genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness
to qualities of the environment.
• The concept of gene–environment correlation states that our genes influence the environments to which we are
exposed. In passive correlation, parents provide their children with environments influenced by their own heredity. In
evocative correlation, children evoke responses influenced by the child’s heredity, and these responses strengthen the
child’s original style.
• At older ages, active gene–environment correlation is seen in niche-picking—the tendency to actively choose
environments that complement our heredity.
• Accumulating evidence reveals that the relationship between heredity and environment is bidirectional: Genes affect
people’s behavior and experiences, but their experiences and behavior also affect gene expression.
• Epigenesis refers to development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of
the environment.
• Researchers in epigenetics are beginning to clarify the precise mechanisms through which environment can alter gene
Loading page 18...
Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations
19
LECTURE ENHANCEMENTS
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 2.1
Environmental Contexts for Development: What Researchers Can Learn from Studying Latino Children and Their
Families (pp. 62–63)
Objective: To consider ways in which an understanding of how Latino children develop within their culture can contribute to
an understanding of the cultural contexts within which all children develop.
The authors of “Learning from Latinos” begin with the observation that two generations ago, Latino children and their families
were assumed to have uniform cultural traits and practices, which were typically seen as deficits compared with those of white,
middle-class families.
Research since the 1960s has exposed the limitations of this older conception of child development, which viewed
socialization only in terms of how well children fit into mainstream society. Today’s researchers understand that children are
socialized within a particular cultural community with its own values and practices, which may promote both cognitive and
social development. From this perspective, distinct strengths of Latino families and resulting benefits for children can be
identified.
“Learning from Latinos” provides context for class discussion of the text on pages 62–63, which deals with the ways in
which cultural context affects how children are socialized and how they learn within everyday activities. For example, the text
notes that Hispanic extended families in the United States are often characterized by a cooperative family structure in which
grandparents actively collaborate with parents in child rearing. This type of intergenerational shared parenting—consistent with
the Hispanic cultural ideal of familism, which emphasizes close family ties—is beneficial for all generations.
The authors note that schools and other institutions often fail to recognize the distinct social assets that characterize Latino
children, such as respect for adults and a commitment to serve their family by succeeding in school. They conclude that a better
understanding of how Latino children develop within their cultural context can promote our understanding of how all children
and adolescents learn and develop within their own distinct cultural or socioeconomic groups.
Fuller, B., & García Coll, C. (2010). Learning from Latinos: Contexts, families, and child development in motion.
Developmental Psychology, 46, 559–565. doi: 101037/a0019412
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 2.2
The Role of DNA Methylation in Gene Expression: Examples and Implications (pp. 70–72)
Objective: To consider research evidence for the role of DNA methylation in gene expression, with implications for promoting
health and wellness.
As described in the discussion of environmental influences on gene expression (pages 70–72), research evidence reveals a
bidirectional relationship between heredity and environment. Not only do our genes affect the experiences to which we are
exposed, but our experiences and behavior also influence gene expression, without actually changing the DNA sequence. One
mechanism through which such effects occur is methylation—“a biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which
a set of chemical compounds (called a methyl group) lands on top of a gene and changes its impact.”
The Biology and Environment box on page 71 considers how methylation may have accounted for the consequences of
exposure to the 1994 Tutsi genocide in Rwanda for both pregnant mothers and their children. Szyf and Bick’s (2013) review
paper provides additional evidence for such effects. For example, the authors note “a striking resemblance” between differences
in DNA methylation associated with child abuse and those associated with low levels of maternal care in rats.
Countering the widespread belief that differences between individuals in phenotype, disease susceptibility, and behavior
reflect differences in gene sequencing, these authors cite evidence that, in fact, these interindividual differences in gene
sequences “do not operate alone but interact with environmental conditions to predict phenotypic outcomes.” They hope that
future research into the precise mechanisms involved in methylation will eventually lead to the development of strategies for
altering gene expression in a way that promotes healthy outcomes.
Szyf, M., & Bick, J. (2013). DNA methylation: A mechanism for embedding early life experiences in the genome. (Special
Section: Genomics) Child Development, 84, 49–57. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01793.x
19
LECTURE ENHANCEMENTS
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 2.1
Environmental Contexts for Development: What Researchers Can Learn from Studying Latino Children and Their
Families (pp. 62–63)
Objective: To consider ways in which an understanding of how Latino children develop within their culture can contribute to
an understanding of the cultural contexts within which all children develop.
The authors of “Learning from Latinos” begin with the observation that two generations ago, Latino children and their families
were assumed to have uniform cultural traits and practices, which were typically seen as deficits compared with those of white,
middle-class families.
Research since the 1960s has exposed the limitations of this older conception of child development, which viewed
socialization only in terms of how well children fit into mainstream society. Today’s researchers understand that children are
socialized within a particular cultural community with its own values and practices, which may promote both cognitive and
social development. From this perspective, distinct strengths of Latino families and resulting benefits for children can be
identified.
“Learning from Latinos” provides context for class discussion of the text on pages 62–63, which deals with the ways in
which cultural context affects how children are socialized and how they learn within everyday activities. For example, the text
notes that Hispanic extended families in the United States are often characterized by a cooperative family structure in which
grandparents actively collaborate with parents in child rearing. This type of intergenerational shared parenting—consistent with
the Hispanic cultural ideal of familism, which emphasizes close family ties—is beneficial for all generations.
The authors note that schools and other institutions often fail to recognize the distinct social assets that characterize Latino
children, such as respect for adults and a commitment to serve their family by succeeding in school. They conclude that a better
understanding of how Latino children develop within their cultural context can promote our understanding of how all children
and adolescents learn and develop within their own distinct cultural or socioeconomic groups.
Fuller, B., & García Coll, C. (2010). Learning from Latinos: Contexts, families, and child development in motion.
Developmental Psychology, 46, 559–565. doi: 101037/a0019412
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT 2.2
The Role of DNA Methylation in Gene Expression: Examples and Implications (pp. 70–72)
Objective: To consider research evidence for the role of DNA methylation in gene expression, with implications for promoting
health and wellness.
As described in the discussion of environmental influences on gene expression (pages 70–72), research evidence reveals a
bidirectional relationship between heredity and environment. Not only do our genes affect the experiences to which we are
exposed, but our experiences and behavior also influence gene expression, without actually changing the DNA sequence. One
mechanism through which such effects occur is methylation—“a biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which
a set of chemical compounds (called a methyl group) lands on top of a gene and changes its impact.”
The Biology and Environment box on page 71 considers how methylation may have accounted for the consequences of
exposure to the 1994 Tutsi genocide in Rwanda for both pregnant mothers and their children. Szyf and Bick’s (2013) review
paper provides additional evidence for such effects. For example, the authors note “a striking resemblance” between differences
in DNA methylation associated with child abuse and those associated with low levels of maternal care in rats.
Countering the widespread belief that differences between individuals in phenotype, disease susceptibility, and behavior
reflect differences in gene sequencing, these authors cite evidence that, in fact, these interindividual differences in gene
sequences “do not operate alone but interact with environmental conditions to predict phenotypic outcomes.” They hope that
future research into the precise mechanisms involved in methylation will eventually lead to the development of strategies for
altering gene expression in a way that promotes healthy outcomes.
Szyf, M., & Bick, J. (2013). DNA methylation: A mechanism for embedding early life experiences in the genome. (Special
Section: Genomics) Child Development, 84, 49–57. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01793.x
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
20
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1
Observing Similarities and Differences in Phenotypes Among Family Members (p. 44)
Ask students to think of several children and parents whom they know well and to jot down some similarities in physical
characteristics (for example, height, weight, eye and hair color) and behavior (personality, interests, hobbies) between the
children and their parents. Did they find that one child shows combined features of both parents, another resembles just one
parent, or another is unlike either parent?
Next, ask students to trace a visible genetic trait (phenotype), such as hair or eye color, through as many of their family
members as possible, beginning with the youngest generation and working back. When the genetic family tree is complete, ask
them to determine genotypes. Point out that for some dominant traits it is impossible to determine the genotype on the basis of
the phenotype, so students will have to make inferences. For example, it may not be evident whether a dark-haired person is
homozygous for dark hair or is heterozygous, with a genetic makeup consisting of a dominant dark-hair and a recessive light-
hair allele. Ask students to explain what may be responsible for these differences between family members. Integrate the terms
phenotype, genotype, and meiosis into the discussion.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2
Demonstrating Environmental Influences by Comparing Identical Twins (p. 46)
As discussed in the text, identical, or monozygotic, twins have the same genetic makeup. Therefore, phenotypic variation of
identical twins is perhaps the best evidence of the extent to which environmental influences can modify genetic expression. To
demonstrate, invite a pair of identical twins to join your class for observation and interviews. Before the visit, ask students to
generate a list of questions that they would like to ask each twin. These questions should be based on attributes or abilities that
are thought to have a significant genetic component—for example, IQ, personality, interests, and talents. Students should also
note any physical differences between the twins, such as height, weight, or handedness.
After the visit, engage students in a discussion about similarities and differences between the twins, including ideas about
how the environment may have contributed to differences.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.3
True or False: The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies (pp. 52–53)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Read each of the following statements and determine if it is True (T) or False (F).
_____ 1. One-fourth of all couples who try to conceive discover that they are infertile.
_____ 2. The success rate for donor insemination is only 30 to 40 percent.
_____ 3. Each year, 1 percent of all children in developed countries are conceived through in vitro fertilization.
_____ 4. The overall success rate of assisted reproductive techniques is about 70 percent.
_____ 5. Most parents who have used in vitro fertilization do not tell their children about their origins.
_____ 6. In the United States, doctors are not required to keep records of donor characteristics.
_____ 7. Because surrogacy usually involves the wealthy as contractors for infants and the less economically
advantaged as surrogates, it may promote the exploitation of financially needy women.
_____ 8. Most recipients of in vitro fertilization are in their fifties and sixties.
_____ 9. At present, not enough is known about the psychological consequences of being a product of reproductive
technologies.
Answers:
1. F
2. F
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. F
9. T
20
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1
Observing Similarities and Differences in Phenotypes Among Family Members (p. 44)
Ask students to think of several children and parents whom they know well and to jot down some similarities in physical
characteristics (for example, height, weight, eye and hair color) and behavior (personality, interests, hobbies) between the
children and their parents. Did they find that one child shows combined features of both parents, another resembles just one
parent, or another is unlike either parent?
Next, ask students to trace a visible genetic trait (phenotype), such as hair or eye color, through as many of their family
members as possible, beginning with the youngest generation and working back. When the genetic family tree is complete, ask
them to determine genotypes. Point out that for some dominant traits it is impossible to determine the genotype on the basis of
the phenotype, so students will have to make inferences. For example, it may not be evident whether a dark-haired person is
homozygous for dark hair or is heterozygous, with a genetic makeup consisting of a dominant dark-hair and a recessive light-
hair allele. Ask students to explain what may be responsible for these differences between family members. Integrate the terms
phenotype, genotype, and meiosis into the discussion.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2
Demonstrating Environmental Influences by Comparing Identical Twins (p. 46)
As discussed in the text, identical, or monozygotic, twins have the same genetic makeup. Therefore, phenotypic variation of
identical twins is perhaps the best evidence of the extent to which environmental influences can modify genetic expression. To
demonstrate, invite a pair of identical twins to join your class for observation and interviews. Before the visit, ask students to
generate a list of questions that they would like to ask each twin. These questions should be based on attributes or abilities that
are thought to have a significant genetic component—for example, IQ, personality, interests, and talents. Students should also
note any physical differences between the twins, such as height, weight, or handedness.
After the visit, engage students in a discussion about similarities and differences between the twins, including ideas about
how the environment may have contributed to differences.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.3
True or False: The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies (pp. 52–53)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Read each of the following statements and determine if it is True (T) or False (F).
_____ 1. One-fourth of all couples who try to conceive discover that they are infertile.
_____ 2. The success rate for donor insemination is only 30 to 40 percent.
_____ 3. Each year, 1 percent of all children in developed countries are conceived through in vitro fertilization.
_____ 4. The overall success rate of assisted reproductive techniques is about 70 percent.
_____ 5. Most parents who have used in vitro fertilization do not tell their children about their origins.
_____ 6. In the United States, doctors are not required to keep records of donor characteristics.
_____ 7. Because surrogacy usually involves the wealthy as contractors for infants and the less economically
advantaged as surrogates, it may promote the exploitation of financially needy women.
_____ 8. Most recipients of in vitro fertilization are in their fifties and sixties.
_____ 9. At present, not enough is known about the psychological consequences of being a product of reproductive
technologies.
Answers:
1. F
2. F
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. F
9. T
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Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations
21
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4
Investigating Social Indicators of the Well-Being of Children and Older Adults in the United States (pp. 64–65)
According to the text, parents who are under the age of 25 and older adults who live alone are hit hardest by the effects of
poverty. Further, until well into the twentieth century, the United States had few policies in place to protect its aging
population. To supplement research in the text, ask students to visit two websites: Child Trends (www.childtrends.org) and the
Federal Interagency Forum on Aging Related Statistics (www.agingstats.gov).
Child Trends: Students should position their mouse over DataBank and click on DataBank By Topic, then choose Poverty and
Inequality and select an article to review. Ask students to briefly summarize the article, addressing the following questions:
(1) What child or adolescent indicator was highlighted?
(2) What trends were revealed?
(3) Did the article include past research? If so, how do past and current research findings compare?
(4) Is any cultural or ethnic data reported? If so, what differences or similarities did you find between different cultural or
ethnic groups?
Aging Stats: Ask students to explore the site and to list key indicators of well-being among older adults. What resources are
available to older people? Ask students to compare this information to the information on children, and to share their findings
with the class.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.5
Conducting a Survey of Attitudes Toward Government Intervention into Family Life (pp. 64–65)
Ask students to interview two or three friends, family members, or acquaintances, and ask the following questions:
(1) Should government provide money and resources to low-income families with young children? If so, should that
support come from tax dollars?
(2) Should government support for older adults serve primarily as a safety net for those in dire need, or should universal
programs such as Social Security and Medicare be maintained and even expanded?
When students return to class with their interview responses, ask them to share their findings in class and to classify each
answer on the basis of whether it reflects an emphasis on independence or on interdependence. Do students agree with the
views expressed by their respondents? Why or why not?
21
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.4
Investigating Social Indicators of the Well-Being of Children and Older Adults in the United States (pp. 64–65)
According to the text, parents who are under the age of 25 and older adults who live alone are hit hardest by the effects of
poverty. Further, until well into the twentieth century, the United States had few policies in place to protect its aging
population. To supplement research in the text, ask students to visit two websites: Child Trends (www.childtrends.org) and the
Federal Interagency Forum on Aging Related Statistics (www.agingstats.gov).
Child Trends: Students should position their mouse over DataBank and click on DataBank By Topic, then choose Poverty and
Inequality and select an article to review. Ask students to briefly summarize the article, addressing the following questions:
(1) What child or adolescent indicator was highlighted?
(2) What trends were revealed?
(3) Did the article include past research? If so, how do past and current research findings compare?
(4) Is any cultural or ethnic data reported? If so, what differences or similarities did you find between different cultural or
ethnic groups?
Aging Stats: Ask students to explore the site and to list key indicators of well-being among older adults. What resources are
available to older people? Ask students to compare this information to the information on children, and to share their findings
with the class.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.5
Conducting a Survey of Attitudes Toward Government Intervention into Family Life (pp. 64–65)
Ask students to interview two or three friends, family members, or acquaintances, and ask the following questions:
(1) Should government provide money and resources to low-income families with young children? If so, should that
support come from tax dollars?
(2) Should government support for older adults serve primarily as a safety net for those in dire need, or should universal
programs such as Social Security and Medicare be maintained and even expanded?
When students return to class with their interview responses, ask them to share their findings in class and to classify each
answer on the basis of whether it reflects an emphasis on independence or on interdependence. Do students agree with the
views expressed by their respondents? Why or why not?
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Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
22
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.6
Matching: Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and Environment (pp. 70–75)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Match each of the following terms with its correct description.
_____ 1. Heritability estimates
_____ 2. Kinship studies
_____ 3. Gene–environment interaction
_____ 4. Gene–environment correlation
_____ 5. Niche-picking
_____ 6. Epigenesis
_____ 7. Methylation
Descriptions:
A. The ways in which our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
B. Measure of the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic
factors
C. The tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity
D. Development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment
E. Comparison of the characteristics of family members
F. Differences resulting from individuals’ genetic makeup in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment
G. A biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which a set of chemical compounds, called a methyl group,
lands on top of a gene and changes its impact, reducing or silencing its expression
22
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.6
Matching: Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and Environment (pp. 70–75)
Present the following exercise as an in-class activity or quiz.
Directions: Match each of the following terms with its correct description.
_____ 1. Heritability estimates
_____ 2. Kinship studies
_____ 3. Gene–environment interaction
_____ 4. Gene–environment correlation
_____ 5. Niche-picking
_____ 6. Epigenesis
_____ 7. Methylation
Descriptions:
A. The ways in which our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
B. Measure of the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic
factors
C. The tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity
D. Development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment
E. Comparison of the characteristics of family members
F. Differences resulting from individuals’ genetic makeup in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment
G. A biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which a set of chemical compounds, called a methyl group,
lands on top of a gene and changes its impact, reducing or silencing its expression
Loading page 22...
Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations
23
ASK YOURSELF . . .
CONNECT: Referring to ecological systems theory (Chapter 1, pages 23–26), explain why parents of children with
genetic disorders often experience increased stress. What factors, within and beyond the family, can help these parents
support their children’s development? (p. 50)
Ecological systems theory views the individual as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by
multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Caring for a child with a genetic disorder can be expensive, exhausting, and
stressful for parents. For example, infants with Down syndrome are more difficult to care for than typically developing infants.
They smile less readily, show poor eye-to-eye contact, have weak muscle tone, and explore objects less persistently than typical
children. From the viewpoint of ecological systems theory, factors in the mesosystem—for example, the availability of
specialized infant and preschool intervention programs—can help parents of children with these disorders support their child’s
development, both by providing experiences that promote the child’s physical and cognitive development and by relieving the
parents of the sole burden of caring for the child.
APPLY: Gilbert’s genetic makeup is homozygous for dark hair. Jan’s is homozygous for blond hair. What proportion
of their children are likely to be dark-haired? Explain. (p. 46)
Homozygous individuals inherit similar alleles from both parents, so they will always display the inherited trait. Because
Gilbert can pass on only the dominant dark-hair allele, all of Gilbert and Jan’s children will have dark hair. However, because
their children will also receive the recessive blond-hair allele from Jan, all of them will be heterozygous—carriers of the allele
for blond hair, which they can pass on to their own children.
REFLECT: Provide illustrations from our discussion, and from people you know with genetic disorders, of
environmental influences on development. (pp. 50–51)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: How does research on adoption reveal resilience? Which factor related to resilience (see Chapter 1, pages
10–11) is central in positive outcomes for adoptees? (pp. 55–56)
Research shows that adopted children and adolescents tend to have more learning and emotional difficulties than other
children, a difference that increases with the child’s age at time of adoption. Children adopted after infancy often have a
preadoptive history of conflict
23
ASK YOURSELF . . .
CONNECT: Referring to ecological systems theory (Chapter 1, pages 23–26), explain why parents of children with
genetic disorders often experience increased stress. What factors, within and beyond the family, can help these parents
support their children’s development? (p. 50)
Ecological systems theory views the individual as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by
multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Caring for a child with a genetic disorder can be expensive, exhausting, and
stressful for parents. For example, infants with Down syndrome are more difficult to care for than typically developing infants.
They smile less readily, show poor eye-to-eye contact, have weak muscle tone, and explore objects less persistently than typical
children. From the viewpoint of ecological systems theory, factors in the mesosystem—for example, the availability of
specialized infant and preschool intervention programs—can help parents of children with these disorders support their child’s
development, both by providing experiences that promote the child’s physical and cognitive development and by relieving the
parents of the sole burden of caring for the child.
APPLY: Gilbert’s genetic makeup is homozygous for dark hair. Jan’s is homozygous for blond hair. What proportion
of their children are likely to be dark-haired? Explain. (p. 46)
Homozygous individuals inherit similar alleles from both parents, so they will always display the inherited trait. Because
Gilbert can pass on only the dominant dark-hair allele, all of Gilbert and Jan’s children will have dark hair. However, because
their children will also receive the recessive blond-hair allele from Jan, all of them will be heterozygous—carriers of the allele
for blond hair, which they can pass on to their own children.
REFLECT: Provide illustrations from our discussion, and from people you know with genetic disorders, of
environmental influences on development. (pp. 50–51)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: How does research on adoption reveal resilience? Which factor related to resilience (see Chapter 1, pages
10–11) is central in positive outcomes for adoptees? (pp. 55–56)
Research shows that adopted children and adolescents tend to have more learning and emotional difficulties than other
children, a difference that increases with the child’s age at time of adoption. Children adopted after infancy often have a
preadoptive history of conflict
Loading page 23...
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
24
REFLECT: Suppose you are a carrier of fragile X syndrome and want to have children. Would you choose pregnancy,
adoption, or surrogacy? If you became pregnant, would you opt for prenatal diagnosis? Explain your decisions.
(pp. 51–56)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Links between family and community foster development throughout the lifespan. Provide examples and
research findings that support this idea. (pp. 60–61)
Connections between family and community are vital for psychological well-being throughout the lifespan. For example,
in poverty-stricken areas, community life is usually disrupted. Families move often, parks and playgrounds are in disarray, and
community centers providing organized leisure-time activities do not exist. In such neighborhoods, family violence, child abuse
and neglect, child and youth internalizing and externalizing difficulties, adult criminal behavior, and depression and declines in
cognitive functioning in older adults are especially high. In contrast, strong family ties to the surrounding social context—as
indicated by frequent contact with friends and relatives and regular church, synagogue, or mosque attendance—reduce stress
and enhance adjustment.
Neighborhoods offer resources and social ties that play an important part in children’s development, especially for
economically disadvantaged young people, whose families depend on their immediate surroundings for social support. In low-
income neighborhoods, in-school and after-school programs that provide art, music, sports, and other enrichment activities are
associated with improved academic performance and a reduction in emotional and behavior problems in elementary and middle
school. And neighborhood organizations, such as religious youth groups and special interest clubs, contribute to increased self-
confidence, school achievement, and educational aspirations in adolescence.
During late adulthood, neighborhoods become increasingly important because people spend more time at home. Especially
in the absence of nearby family members, older adults mention neighbors and nearby friends as resources they rely on most for
physical and social support.
APPLY: Check your local newspaper or one or two national news websites to see how often articles appear on the
condition of children, families, and older adults. Why is it important for researchers to communicate with the public
about the well-being of these sectors of the population? (pp. 64–66)
When widespread social problems arise, such as poverty, homelessness, hunger, and disease, nations attempt to solve them
through devising public policies—laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions. For example, when
poverty increases and families become homeless, a country might decide to build more low-cost housing, raise the minimum
wage, and increase welfare benefits. When older adults have difficulty making ends meet because of inflation, a nation might
increase its social security benefits. Growing awareness of the gap between what we know and what we do to better people’s
lives has led experts in developmental science to join with concerned citizens as advocates for more effective policies.
24
REFLECT: Suppose you are a carrier of fragile X syndrome and want to have children. Would you choose pregnancy,
adoption, or surrogacy? If you became pregnant, would you opt for prenatal diagnosis? Explain your decisions.
(pp. 51–56)
This is an open-ended question with no right or wrong answer.
CONNECT: Links between family and community foster development throughout the lifespan. Provide examples and
research findings that support this idea. (pp. 60–61)
Connections between family and community are vital for psychological well-being throughout the lifespan. For example,
in poverty-stricken areas, community life is usually disrupted. Families move often, parks and playgrounds are in disarray, and
community centers providing organized leisure-time activities do not exist. In such neighborhoods, family violence, child abuse
and neglect, child and youth internalizing and externalizing difficulties, adult criminal behavior, and depression and declines in
cognitive functioning in older adults are especially high. In contrast, strong family ties to the surrounding social context—as
indicated by frequent contact with friends and relatives and regular church, synagogue, or mosque attendance—reduce stress
and enhance adjustment.
Neighborhoods offer resources and social ties that play an important part in children’s development, especially for
economically disadvantaged young people, whose families depend on their immediate surroundings for social support. In low-
income neighborhoods, in-school and after-school programs that provide art, music, sports, and other enrichment activities are
associated with improved academic performance and a reduction in emotional and behavior problems in elementary and middle
school. And neighborhood organizations, such as religious youth groups and special interest clubs, contribute to increased self-
confidence, school achievement, and educational aspirations in adolescence.
During late adulthood, neighborhoods become increasingly important because people spend more time at home. Especially
in the absence of nearby family members, older adults mention neighbors and nearby friends as resources they rely on most for
physical and social support.
APPLY: Check your local newspaper or one or two national news websites to see how often articles appear on the
condition of children, families, and older adults. Why is it important for researchers to communicate with the public
about the well-being of these sectors of the population? (pp. 64–66)
When widespread social problems arise, such as poverty, homelessness, hunger, and disease, nations attempt to solve them
through devising public policies—laws and government programs designed to improve current conditions. For example, when
poverty increases and families become homeless, a country might decide to build more low-cost housing, raise the minimum
wage, and increase welfare benefits. When older adults have difficulty making ends meet because of inflation, a nation might
increase its social security benefits. Growing awareness of the gap between what we know and what we do to better people’s
lives has led experts in developmental science to join with concerned citizens as advocates for more effective policies.
Loading page 24...
Chapter 2 Genetic and Environmental Foundations
25
who are increasingly in charge of their environments, can express their preferences through niche-picking. This helps explain
why pairs of identical twins reared apart during childhood and later reunited may find, to their surprise, that they have similar
hobbies, food preferences, and vocations.
Epigenesis means development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the
environment. One mechanism through which environment can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence is
methylation—a biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which a set of chemical compounds (called a methyl
group) lands on top of a gene and changes its impact, reducing or silencing its expression. Methylation levels can be measured,
and they help explain why identical twins, though precisely the same in DNA sequencing, sometimes display strikingly
different phenotypes with age.
APPLY: Bianca’s parents are accomplished musicians. At age 4, Bianca began taking piano lessons. By age 10, she was
accompanying the school choir. At age 14, she asked to attend a special music high school. Explain how gene–
environment correlation promoted Bianca’s talent. (pp. 68–69)
According to the concept of gene–environment correlation, our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
Early in her development, Bianca probably experienced passive correlation when her parents, because of their own musical
backgrounds, exposed her to musical activities, such as attending concerts and listening to classical music. Bianca’s parents
also provided her first piano lessons and opportunities for other music-related experiences. Because Bianca was receptive to
this abundance of musical stimulation, she undoubtedly evoked positive responses from her parents, who continued to promote
her musical development—an example of evocative gene–environment correlation.
As Bianca grew older, she became more active in choosing her own environments. She decided to accompany the school
choir and later asked to attend a special music high school. Bianca’s inherited musical talent led her to engage in niche-
picking—choosing activities and environments that fit with her genetic tendencies. In these ways, heredity and environment
worked together to advance Bianca’s musical endeavors.
REFLECT: What aspects of your own development—for example, interests, hobbies, college major, or vocational
choice—are probably due to niche-picking? Explain. (p. 69)
25
who are increasingly in charge of their environments, can express their preferences through niche-picking. This helps explain
why pairs of identical twins reared apart during childhood and later reunited may find, to their surprise, that they have similar
hobbies, food preferences, and vocations.
Epigenesis means development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the
environment. One mechanism through which environment can alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence is
methylation—a biochemical process triggered by certain experiences, in which a set of chemical compounds (called a methyl
group) lands on top of a gene and changes its impact, reducing or silencing its expression. Methylation levels can be measured,
and they help explain why identical twins, though precisely the same in DNA sequencing, sometimes display strikingly
different phenotypes with age.
APPLY: Bianca’s parents are accomplished musicians. At age 4, Bianca began taking piano lessons. By age 10, she was
accompanying the school choir. At age 14, she asked to attend a special music high school. Explain how gene–
environment correlation promoted Bianca’s talent. (pp. 68–69)
According to the concept of gene–environment correlation, our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
Early in her development, Bianca probably experienced passive correlation when her parents, because of their own musical
backgrounds, exposed her to musical activities, such as attending concerts and listening to classical music. Bianca’s parents
also provided her first piano lessons and opportunities for other music-related experiences. Because Bianca was receptive to
this abundance of musical stimulation, she undoubtedly evoked positive responses from her parents, who continued to promote
her musical development—an example of evocative gene–environment correlation.
As Bianca grew older, she became more active in choosing her own environments. She decided to accompany the school
choir and later asked to attend a special music high school. Bianca’s inherited musical talent led her to engage in niche-
picking—choosing activities and environments that fit with her genetic tendencies. In these ways, heredity and environment
worked together to advance Bianca’s musical endeavors.
REFLECT: What aspects of your own development—for example, interests, hobbies, college major, or vocational
choice—are probably due to niche-picking? Explain. (p. 69)
Loading page 25...
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Berk / Development Through the Lifespan, 7e
26
MEDIA MATERIALS
For details on individual video segments that accompany the DVD for Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition,
please see the DVD Guide for Explorations in Lifespan Development. The DVD and DVD Guide are available through your
Pearson sales representative.
Additional DVDs and streaming videos that may be useful in your class are listed below. They are not available through
your Pearson sales representative, but you can order them directly from the distributors. (See contact information at the end of
this manual.)
Epigenetics: The Hidden Life of Our Genes (2009, Films Media Group, 53 min.). An exploration of the emerging field of
epigenetics.
Heredity & Environment: Beginnings of Life (2011, Learning Seed, 38 min.). An overview of heredity and environment,
including genetic disorders and the role of prenatal counseling.
Secret Life of Twins (2015, Films Media Group/BBC, 51 min.). Stories of several pairs of identical twins, from childhood to
adulthood, revealing similarities and differences between them.
Sperm Donor Anonymous (2015, Films Media Group, 58 min.). The efforts of donor-conceived adults to learn about their
genetic heritage.
Two of a Kind (2014), Films Media Group, 89 min.). Insights into epigenetics from research exploring differences between
identical twins.
Unlocking the Code: Genetics and Medicine (2011, Films Media Group/Open University, 50 min.). How genetic breakthroughs
have improved health-care technology. Part of the series The Gene Code.
Waiting on the World to Change: Poverty in Camden, New Jersey (2007, Films Media Group, 42 min.). The lives of three
young residents of Camden, New Jersey. An ABC News program.
What Poor Child Is This? Poverty and America’s Children (2011, Films Media Group, 86 min.). Child poverty in the United
States—its causes, its agents, and its impact. Part of the series Poverty in America.
26
MEDIA MATERIALS
For details on individual video segments that accompany the DVD for Development Through the Lifespan, Seventh Edition,
please see the DVD Guide for Explorations in Lifespan Development. The DVD and DVD Guide are available through your
Pearson sales representative.
Additional DVDs and streaming videos that may be useful in your class are listed below. They are not available through
your Pearson sales representative, but you can order them directly from the distributors. (See contact information at the end of
this manual.)
Epigenetics: The Hidden Life of Our Genes (2009, Films Media Group, 53 min.). An exploration of the emerging field of
epigenetics.
Heredity & Environment: Beginnings of Life (2011, Learning Seed, 38 min.). An overview of heredity and environment,
including genetic disorders and the role of prenatal counseling.
Secret Life of Twins (2015, Films Media Group/BBC, 51 min.). Stories of several pairs of identical twins, from childhood to
adulthood, revealing similarities and differences between them.
Sperm Donor Anonymous (2015, Films Media Group, 58 min.). The efforts of donor-conceived adults to learn about their
genetic heritage.
Two of a Kind (2014), Films Media Group, 89 min.). Insights into epigenetics from research exploring differences between
identical twins.
Unlocking the Code: Genetics and Medicine (2011, Films Media Group/Open University, 50 min.). How genetic breakthroughs
have improved health-care technology. Part of the series The Gene Code.
Waiting on the World to Change: Poverty in Camden, New Jersey (2007, Films Media Group, 42 min.). The lives of three
young residents of Camden, New Jersey. An ABC News program.
What Poor Child Is This? Poverty and America’s Children (2011, Films Media Group, 86 min.). Child poverty in the United
States—its causes, its agents, and its impact. Part of the series Poverty in America.
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