Social Problems In A Diverse Society, Third Canadian Edition Lecture Notes
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
EPILOGUE
How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Attempting to reduce or solve a social problem is a complex undertaking, which typically
involves many obstacles, delays, and sometimes, high costs. If the functionalist approach is
applied to reducing social problems, then maintaining the status quo, preventing rapid social
changes, and restoring order are central factors. By contrast, the conflict perspective states that
the root causes of social problems-such as patriarchy, capitalism, and spending priorities that
place corporate tax breaks and military spending ahead of social services-would have to be
radically altered or eliminated altogether. Feminist approaches suggest that in order to eliminate
social problems, we need to look at the ways that oppressions are interconnected, simultaneously
dealing with our own prejudices while working with others to eliminate social injustice. Some
analysts believe we need to develop a “human agenda” that focuses on the needs of people over
profit. To create a human agenda, critical social analysis is a key foundation for effective social
action. A shared vision, shared values and free and full participation in social life are also
necessary components for creating critical mass.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the Epilogue, students should be able to:
1. Explain how adherents of each of four theoretical perspectives would describe social
problems and suggest eliminating them.
2. Evaluate their personal tendency toward critical social analysis and understand what this
means.
3. Begin thinking about the kind of world they hope to take part in creating.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. A REVIEW OF MAJOR SOCIAL THEORIES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Functionalist Perspectives
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes
to the overall stability of society. From the functionalist perspective, social
problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill the functions they are
supposed to perform or when dysfunctions (undesirable consequences of an
activity or social process that inhibit a society’s ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
Dysfunctions create social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional
values and norms that serve as social control mechanisms.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
EPILOGUE
How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Attempting to reduce or solve a social problem is a complex undertaking, which typically
involves many obstacles, delays, and sometimes, high costs. If the functionalist approach is
applied to reducing social problems, then maintaining the status quo, preventing rapid social
changes, and restoring order are central factors. By contrast, the conflict perspective states that
the root causes of social problems-such as patriarchy, capitalism, and spending priorities that
place corporate tax breaks and military spending ahead of social services-would have to be
radically altered or eliminated altogether. Feminist approaches suggest that in order to eliminate
social problems, we need to look at the ways that oppressions are interconnected, simultaneously
dealing with our own prejudices while working with others to eliminate social injustice. Some
analysts believe we need to develop a “human agenda” that focuses on the needs of people over
profit. To create a human agenda, critical social analysis is a key foundation for effective social
action. A shared vision, shared values and free and full participation in social life are also
necessary components for creating critical mass.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the Epilogue, students should be able to:
1. Explain how adherents of each of four theoretical perspectives would describe social
problems and suggest eliminating them.
2. Evaluate their personal tendency toward critical social analysis and understand what this
means.
3. Begin thinking about the kind of world they hope to take part in creating.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. A REVIEW OF MAJOR SOCIAL THEORIES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Functionalist Perspectives
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes
to the overall stability of society. From the functionalist perspective, social
problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill the functions they are
supposed to perform or when dysfunctions (undesirable consequences of an
activity or social process that inhibit a society’s ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
Dysfunctions create social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional
values and norms that serve as social control mechanisms.
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
EPILOGUE
How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Attempting to reduce or solve a social problem is a complex undertaking, which typically
involves many obstacles, delays, and sometimes, high costs. If the functionalist approach is
applied to reducing social problems, then maintaining the status quo, preventing rapid social
changes, and restoring order are central factors. By contrast, the conflict perspective states that
the root causes of social problems-such as patriarchy, capitalism, and spending priorities that
place corporate tax breaks and military spending ahead of social services-would have to be
radically altered or eliminated altogether. Feminist approaches suggest that in order to eliminate
social problems, we need to look at the ways that oppressions are interconnected, simultaneously
dealing with our own prejudices while working with others to eliminate social injustice. Some
analysts believe we need to develop a “human agenda” that focuses on the needs of people over
profit. To create a human agenda, critical social analysis is a key foundation for effective social
action. A shared vision, shared values and free and full participation in social life are also
necessary components for creating critical mass.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the Epilogue, students should be able to:
1. Explain how adherents of each of four theoretical perspectives would describe social
problems and suggest eliminating them.
2. Evaluate their personal tendency toward critical social analysis and understand what this
means.
3. Begin thinking about the kind of world they hope to take part in creating.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. A REVIEW OF MAJOR SOCIAL THEORIES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Functionalist Perspectives
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes
to the overall stability of society. From the functionalist perspective, social
problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill the functions they are
supposed to perform or when dysfunctions (undesirable consequences of an
activity or social process that inhibit a society’s ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
Dysfunctions create social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional
values and norms that serve as social control mechanisms.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
EPILOGUE
How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Attempting to reduce or solve a social problem is a complex undertaking, which typically
involves many obstacles, delays, and sometimes, high costs. If the functionalist approach is
applied to reducing social problems, then maintaining the status quo, preventing rapid social
changes, and restoring order are central factors. By contrast, the conflict perspective states that
the root causes of social problems-such as patriarchy, capitalism, and spending priorities that
place corporate tax breaks and military spending ahead of social services-would have to be
radically altered or eliminated altogether. Feminist approaches suggest that in order to eliminate
social problems, we need to look at the ways that oppressions are interconnected, simultaneously
dealing with our own prejudices while working with others to eliminate social injustice. Some
analysts believe we need to develop a “human agenda” that focuses on the needs of people over
profit. To create a human agenda, critical social analysis is a key foundation for effective social
action. A shared vision, shared values and free and full participation in social life are also
necessary components for creating critical mass.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the Epilogue, students should be able to:
1. Explain how adherents of each of four theoretical perspectives would describe social
problems and suggest eliminating them.
2. Evaluate their personal tendency toward critical social analysis and understand what this
means.
3. Begin thinking about the kind of world they hope to take part in creating.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. A REVIEW OF MAJOR SOCIAL THEORIES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Functionalist Perspectives
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes
to the overall stability of society. From the functionalist perspective, social
problems arise when social institutions do not fulfill the functions they are
supposed to perform or when dysfunctions (undesirable consequences of an
activity or social process that inhibit a society’s ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
Dysfunctions create social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional
values and norms that serve as social control mechanisms.
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
2) If the functionalist approach is applied to reducing social problems, then
preventing rapid social changes, maintaining the status quo, and restoring order
are central factors.
B. Conflict Perspectives
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that conflict is natural and
inevitable in society. From this approach, root causes of social problems would
have to be radically altered or eliminated altogether.
2) To reduce social problems, conflict theorists suggest proposals that are not always
viewed positively in societies where economic prosperity based on individual
attributes, rather than collective activities, is highly valued as a mark of personal
and social achievement. The interlocking nature of racialized, class, and gender as
systems of domination and subordination are also central concerns to some
conflict theorists. To reduce or eliminate social problems that are embedded in
racialized and ethnic relations, class relationships and gender inequalities would
also require dramatic changes in society.
C. Interactionist Perspectives
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on how people act toward one another and
make sense of their daily lives. From this approach, society is viewed as the sum
of the interactions of individuals and groups. Interactionists often study social
problems by analyzing the process whereby certain behaviour is defined as a
social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a
significant number of people view as a major social concern.
2) Theories of deviance emphasize that inadequate socialization or interacting with
the “wrong” people may contribute to deviant behaviour and crime. Similarly,
interactionists who use the labeling framework for their analysis study how
people label behaviour, how they respond to people engaged in such behaviour,
and what the consequences are of their responses.
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists concentrate on both macro and micro levels of interaction.
Society is seen as a matrix of oppression, organized according to specific relations
of domination and subordination.
2) Analysts study how forms of oppression work to reinforce a paradigm of
oppression, competition, and hierarchy. Radical changes in these relations,
structures, and ideologies of domination and subordination are sought through
paradigm shifts.
II. HOW CAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS BE SOLVED?
A. According to some analysts we need to develop a human agenda that puts people’s needs
and priorities before those of corporations, business and profits. In order to create a
human agenda and solve social problems, we need to develop good social analyses,
shared visions, shared values and ways for people to participate fully and freely in social
life.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
2) If the functionalist approach is applied to reducing social problems, then
preventing rapid social changes, maintaining the status quo, and restoring order
are central factors.
B. Conflict Perspectives
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that conflict is natural and
inevitable in society. From this approach, root causes of social problems would
have to be radically altered or eliminated altogether.
2) To reduce social problems, conflict theorists suggest proposals that are not always
viewed positively in societies where economic prosperity based on individual
attributes, rather than collective activities, is highly valued as a mark of personal
and social achievement. The interlocking nature of racialized, class, and gender as
systems of domination and subordination are also central concerns to some
conflict theorists. To reduce or eliminate social problems that are embedded in
racialized and ethnic relations, class relationships and gender inequalities would
also require dramatic changes in society.
C. Interactionist Perspectives
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on how people act toward one another and
make sense of their daily lives. From this approach, society is viewed as the sum
of the interactions of individuals and groups. Interactionists often study social
problems by analyzing the process whereby certain behaviour is defined as a
social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a
significant number of people view as a major social concern.
2) Theories of deviance emphasize that inadequate socialization or interacting with
the “wrong” people may contribute to deviant behaviour and crime. Similarly,
interactionists who use the labeling framework for their analysis study how
people label behaviour, how they respond to people engaged in such behaviour,
and what the consequences are of their responses.
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists concentrate on both macro and micro levels of interaction.
Society is seen as a matrix of oppression, organized according to specific relations
of domination and subordination.
2) Analysts study how forms of oppression work to reinforce a paradigm of
oppression, competition, and hierarchy. Radical changes in these relations,
structures, and ideologies of domination and subordination are sought through
paradigm shifts.
II. HOW CAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS BE SOLVED?
A. According to some analysts we need to develop a human agenda that puts people’s needs
and priorities before those of corporations, business and profits. In order to create a
human agenda and solve social problems, we need to develop good social analyses,
shared visions, shared values and ways for people to participate fully and freely in social
life.
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
2) If the functionalist approach is applied to reducing social problems, then
preventing rapid social changes, maintaining the status quo, and restoring order
are central factors.
B. Conflict Perspectives
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that conflict is natural and
inevitable in society. From this approach, root causes of social problems would
have to be radically altered or eliminated altogether.
2) To reduce social problems, conflict theorists suggest proposals that are not always
viewed positively in societies where economic prosperity based on individual
attributes, rather than collective activities, is highly valued as a mark of personal
and social achievement. The interlocking nature of racialized, class, and gender as
systems of domination and subordination are also central concerns to some
conflict theorists. To reduce or eliminate social problems that are embedded in
racialized and ethnic relations, class relationships and gender inequalities would
also require dramatic changes in society.
C. Interactionist Perspectives
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on how people act toward one another and
make sense of their daily lives. From this approach, society is viewed as the sum
of the interactions of individuals and groups. Interactionists often study social
problems by analyzing the process whereby certain behaviour is defined as a
social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a
significant number of people view as a major social concern.
2) Theories of deviance emphasize that inadequate socialization or interacting with
the “wrong” people may contribute to deviant behaviour and crime. Similarly,
interactionists who use the labeling framework for their analysis study how
people label behaviour, how they respond to people engaged in such behaviour,
and what the consequences are of their responses.
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists concentrate on both macro and micro levels of interaction.
Society is seen as a matrix of oppression, organized according to specific relations
of domination and subordination.
2) Analysts study how forms of oppression work to reinforce a paradigm of
oppression, competition, and hierarchy. Radical changes in these relations,
structures, and ideologies of domination and subordination are sought through
paradigm shifts.
II. HOW CAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS BE SOLVED?
A. According to some analysts we need to develop a human agenda that puts people’s needs
and priorities before those of corporations, business and profits. In order to create a
human agenda and solve social problems, we need to develop good social analyses,
shared visions, shared values and ways for people to participate fully and freely in social
life.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
2) If the functionalist approach is applied to reducing social problems, then
preventing rapid social changes, maintaining the status quo, and restoring order
are central factors.
B. Conflict Perspectives
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that conflict is natural and
inevitable in society. From this approach, root causes of social problems would
have to be radically altered or eliminated altogether.
2) To reduce social problems, conflict theorists suggest proposals that are not always
viewed positively in societies where economic prosperity based on individual
attributes, rather than collective activities, is highly valued as a mark of personal
and social achievement. The interlocking nature of racialized, class, and gender as
systems of domination and subordination are also central concerns to some
conflict theorists. To reduce or eliminate social problems that are embedded in
racialized and ethnic relations, class relationships and gender inequalities would
also require dramatic changes in society.
C. Interactionist Perspectives
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on how people act toward one another and
make sense of their daily lives. From this approach, society is viewed as the sum
of the interactions of individuals and groups. Interactionists often study social
problems by analyzing the process whereby certain behaviour is defined as a
social problem and how individuals and groups come to engage in activities that a
significant number of people view as a major social concern.
2) Theories of deviance emphasize that inadequate socialization or interacting with
the “wrong” people may contribute to deviant behaviour and crime. Similarly,
interactionists who use the labeling framework for their analysis study how
people label behaviour, how they respond to people engaged in such behaviour,
and what the consequences are of their responses.
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists concentrate on both macro and micro levels of interaction.
Society is seen as a matrix of oppression, organized according to specific relations
of domination and subordination.
2) Analysts study how forms of oppression work to reinforce a paradigm of
oppression, competition, and hierarchy. Radical changes in these relations,
structures, and ideologies of domination and subordination are sought through
paradigm shifts.
II. HOW CAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS BE SOLVED?
A. According to some analysts we need to develop a human agenda that puts people’s needs
and priorities before those of corporations, business and profits. In order to create a
human agenda and solve social problems, we need to develop good social analyses,
shared visions, shared values and ways for people to participate fully and freely in social
life.
CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter 1: Taking a New Look at Social Problems
Chapter 2: Poverty in the Canadian Context
Chapter 3: Racism and Ethnic Inequality
Chapter 4: Gender Inequality
Chapter 5: Inequality Based on Age
Chapter 6: Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation
Chapter 7: The Sex Trade in Canada
Chapter 8: Addictions
Chapter 9: Crime and Criminal Justice
Chapter 10: Health, Illness, and Health Care as Social Problems
Chapter 11: The Changing Family
Chapter 12: Problems in Education
Chapter 13: Problems in the Globalized Economy
Chapter 14: Problems Related to Media
Chapter 15: Population, Urbanization, and the Environmental Crisis
Chapter 16: Global Social Problems
Epilogue How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
Preface
Chapter 1: Taking a New Look at Social Problems
Chapter 2: Poverty in the Canadian Context
Chapter 3: Racism and Ethnic Inequality
Chapter 4: Gender Inequality
Chapter 5: Inequality Based on Age
Chapter 6: Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation
Chapter 7: The Sex Trade in Canada
Chapter 8: Addictions
Chapter 9: Crime and Criminal Justice
Chapter 10: Health, Illness, and Health Care as Social Problems
Chapter 11: The Changing Family
Chapter 12: Problems in Education
Chapter 13: Problems in the Globalized Economy
Chapter 14: Problems Related to Media
Chapter 15: Population, Urbanization, and the Environmental Crisis
Chapter 16: Global Social Problems
Epilogue How Can Social Problems Be Solved?
Loading page 4...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompso
PREFACE
This Instructor’s Manual has been designed to make teaching using Social Problems in a Diverse
Society, Third Canadian Edition, by Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, and Edward G. Thompson
more interesting and enjoyable for you and your students. For your convenience, this Instructor’s
Manual provides you with tools for classroom discussion, assignments, and recommendations for
related films and reading. A test bank, consisting of multiple-choice, true/false, and essay
questions is also available.
The Instructor’s Manual contains the following sections for each chapter:
• The CHAPTER SUMMARY briefly explains the purpose of the chapter and identifies the
main themes.
• The LEARNING OBJECTIVES point out the key concepts and topics that students should
be able to master after learning the material in the chapter.
• The KEY TERMS section lists important concepts introduced in the chapter.
• ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT activities are provided to
assist you in preparing a variety of student learning activities that promote engagement with
(1) community action, (2) theoretical analysis, and (3) media.
• APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION questions are designed
mainly for classroom or homework use but could also be used for testing purposes. The
questions are designed to foster critical thinking and to assist in the development of new
insights pertaining to the causes, effects, and possible solutions for the range of social
problems discussed in the text.
• AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION suggestions provide
information on some, mainly current, audio-visual media that may be helpful for furthering
exploration, discussion and/or understanding of issues.
• CRITICAL READINGS include just a few of the many outstanding and helpful references
on some of the issues covered in each chapter.
NOTE FROM THE AUTHORS
As the authors of the Third Canadian edition of Social Problems in a Diverse Society and the
accompanying Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint Presentations, and MySocKit Site, it
is our hope that we have provided a text and ancillary materials that will make teaching social
problems a rewarding experience for you and a positive learning experience for your students.
Although we live in challenging times, the social problems course may appear irrelevant to
students if it focuses on issues that students believe are unrelated to their daily lives.
Consequently, we wrote the text for the students, focusing on topics that our own students have
found interesting and relevant and using the personal narratives of real people to illustrate how
these concerns impact individuals, how they affect entire societies, and the importance of
applying the sociological imagination when examining the causes, effects, and possible solutions
to the most pressing problems of the twenty-first century. Although many of the issues raised are
daunting, as people’s awareness grows, so too does our collective ability to address the issues in
a humane and sustainable way. Vive!
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompso
PREFACE
This Instructor’s Manual has been designed to make teaching using Social Problems in a Diverse
Society, Third Canadian Edition, by Diana Kendall, Vicki L. Nygaard, and Edward G. Thompson
more interesting and enjoyable for you and your students. For your convenience, this Instructor’s
Manual provides you with tools for classroom discussion, assignments, and recommendations for
related films and reading. A test bank, consisting of multiple-choice, true/false, and essay
questions is also available.
The Instructor’s Manual contains the following sections for each chapter:
• The CHAPTER SUMMARY briefly explains the purpose of the chapter and identifies the
main themes.
• The LEARNING OBJECTIVES point out the key concepts and topics that students should
be able to master after learning the material in the chapter.
• The KEY TERMS section lists important concepts introduced in the chapter.
• ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT activities are provided to
assist you in preparing a variety of student learning activities that promote engagement with
(1) community action, (2) theoretical analysis, and (3) media.
• APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION questions are designed
mainly for classroom or homework use but could also be used for testing purposes. The
questions are designed to foster critical thinking and to assist in the development of new
insights pertaining to the causes, effects, and possible solutions for the range of social
problems discussed in the text.
• AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION suggestions provide
information on some, mainly current, audio-visual media that may be helpful for furthering
exploration, discussion and/or understanding of issues.
• CRITICAL READINGS include just a few of the many outstanding and helpful references
on some of the issues covered in each chapter.
NOTE FROM THE AUTHORS
As the authors of the Third Canadian edition of Social Problems in a Diverse Society and the
accompanying Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint Presentations, and MySocKit Site, it
is our hope that we have provided a text and ancillary materials that will make teaching social
problems a rewarding experience for you and a positive learning experience for your students.
Although we live in challenging times, the social problems course may appear irrelevant to
students if it focuses on issues that students believe are unrelated to their daily lives.
Consequently, we wrote the text for the students, focusing on topics that our own students have
found interesting and relevant and using the personal narratives of real people to illustrate how
these concerns impact individuals, how they affect entire societies, and the importance of
applying the sociological imagination when examining the causes, effects, and possible solutions
to the most pressing problems of the twenty-first century. Although many of the issues raised are
daunting, as people’s awareness grows, so too does our collective ability to address the issues in
a humane and sustainable way. Vive!
Loading page 5...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 1
Taking a New Look at Social Problems
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Social problems are social conditions or patterns of behaviour that people believe warrant public
concern and collective action to bring about change. An example of a social problem is
violence—the use of physical force to cause pain, injury, or death, or damage to property and is
relational. Social problems such as violence often involve significant discrepancies between the
ideals of a society and their actual achievement. Sociologists study many types of social
problems to determine their causes, effects, and possible solutions. Sociology is the academic
and scholarly discipline that engages in systematic study of human society and social
interactions. Using the sociological imagination, we can place seemingly personal problems into
a larger context. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues through
microlevel (focused on small-group relations and social interaction among individuals) and
macrolevel (focused on social processes occurring at the societal level) analysis. Sociologists
use four primary theoretical perspectives to examine social life and social problems: (1) the
functionalist perspective; (2) the conflict perspective; (3) the interactionist perspective; and,
(4) feminist perspectives. Microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to solve social
problems differ considerably. At the microlevel, the interactionist perspective focuses on how
individuals operate within primary groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their
family, or friends. Mid-range attempts focus on secondary groups and formal organizations,
looking at how they can assist individuals in overcoming problems such as drug addiction or
domestic violence. Macrolevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how large-
scale social institutions such as the government and the media may become involved in
remedying social problems. Collective behaviour, social movements, and special interest
groups are among the methods people use in their attempts to reduce social problems.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to:
1. State the sociological definition of a social problem and distinguish between subjective
awareness and objective reality of social problems.
2. Distinguish between microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel analyses of social life.
3. Explain the functionalist perspective on society and state how functionalist theorists believe
that social problems arise.
4. Explain the conflict perspective on society and state how conflict theorists (using different
approaches under this perspective) believe that social problems arise.
5. Explain the interactionist perspective on society and state how interactionists believe that
social problems arise.
6. Explain feminist perspectives on society and state how feminist theorists believe that social
problems arise.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 1
Taking a New Look at Social Problems
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Social problems are social conditions or patterns of behaviour that people believe warrant public
concern and collective action to bring about change. An example of a social problem is
violence—the use of physical force to cause pain, injury, or death, or damage to property and is
relational. Social problems such as violence often involve significant discrepancies between the
ideals of a society and their actual achievement. Sociologists study many types of social
problems to determine their causes, effects, and possible solutions. Sociology is the academic
and scholarly discipline that engages in systematic study of human society and social
interactions. Using the sociological imagination, we can place seemingly personal problems into
a larger context. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues through
microlevel (focused on small-group relations and social interaction among individuals) and
macrolevel (focused on social processes occurring at the societal level) analysis. Sociologists
use four primary theoretical perspectives to examine social life and social problems: (1) the
functionalist perspective; (2) the conflict perspective; (3) the interactionist perspective; and,
(4) feminist perspectives. Microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to solve social
problems differ considerably. At the microlevel, the interactionist perspective focuses on how
individuals operate within primary groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their
family, or friends. Mid-range attempts focus on secondary groups and formal organizations,
looking at how they can assist individuals in overcoming problems such as drug addiction or
domestic violence. Macrolevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how large-
scale social institutions such as the government and the media may become involved in
remedying social problems. Collective behaviour, social movements, and special interest
groups are among the methods people use in their attempts to reduce social problems.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to:
1. State the sociological definition of a social problem and distinguish between subjective
awareness and objective reality of social problems.
2. Distinguish between microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel analyses of social life.
3. Explain the functionalist perspective on society and state how functionalist theorists believe
that social problems arise.
4. Explain the conflict perspective on society and state how conflict theorists (using different
approaches under this perspective) believe that social problems arise.
5. Explain the interactionist perspective on society and state how interactionists believe that
social problems arise.
6. Explain feminist perspectives on society and state how feminist theorists believe that social
problems arise.
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
7. Discuss, and distinguish between, microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to reduce
or solve social problems.
8. Describe how sociological theories can be used to analyse social problems such as violence.
9. Describe the part that primary groups and secondary groups play in reducing social problems.
10. Compare and contrast grassroots groups and special interest groups, and discuss how each
seeks to bring about positive social change.
11. Describe ways in which collective behaviour may be used to address a perceived social
problem.
12. Identify the five major categories of social movements and note the types of social problems
that each is most likely to address.
KEY TERMS
capitalism primary groups
civil disobedience self-fulfilling prophecy
collective behaviour situational approach
conflict perspective social change
discrimination social disorganization
dominant group social movement
functionalist perspective social problem
grassroots groups society
hate crime sociological imagination
industrialization sociology
interactionist perspective subordinate group
lifestyle-routine activity approach theory
macrolevel analysis urbanization
microlevel analysis values
norms violence
perspective
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?
A. A social problem is a social condition or a pattern of behaviour that people believe
warrants public concern and collective action to bring about change.
B. Social conditions or patterns of behaviour such as violence become defined as social
problems when they systematically disadvantage or harm a significant number of people
or when they are seen as harmful by a number of “significant people” who wield power,
wealth, and influence in a group or society.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
7. Discuss, and distinguish between, microlevel, mid-range and macrolevel attempts to reduce
or solve social problems.
8. Describe how sociological theories can be used to analyse social problems such as violence.
9. Describe the part that primary groups and secondary groups play in reducing social problems.
10. Compare and contrast grassroots groups and special interest groups, and discuss how each
seeks to bring about positive social change.
11. Describe ways in which collective behaviour may be used to address a perceived social
problem.
12. Identify the five major categories of social movements and note the types of social problems
that each is most likely to address.
KEY TERMS
capitalism primary groups
civil disobedience self-fulfilling prophecy
collective behaviour situational approach
conflict perspective social change
discrimination social disorganization
dominant group social movement
functionalist perspective social problem
grassroots groups society
hate crime sociological imagination
industrialization sociology
interactionist perspective subordinate group
lifestyle-routine activity approach theory
macrolevel analysis urbanization
microlevel analysis values
norms violence
perspective
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?
A. A social problem is a social condition or a pattern of behaviour that people believe
warrants public concern and collective action to bring about change.
B. Social conditions or patterns of behaviour such as violence become defined as social
problems when they systematically disadvantage or harm a significant number of people
or when they are seen as harmful by a number of “significant people” who wield power,
wealth, and influence in a group or society.
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C. In sociology, examination of social problems primarily focuses on society.
1) Some social problems (e.g., violence and crime) are commonly viewed as
conditions that affect all members of a population.
2) Other social problems (e.g., racialized discrimination and sexual harassment) may
be viewed (correctly or incorrectly) as conditions that affect some members of a
population more than others.
D. Social problems often involve significant discrepancies between the ideals of society and
their actual achievement. One example is discrimination (actions or practice of
dominant group members that have harmful effects on subordinate group members),
which heightens existing inequalities along class, racialization, gender, and age lines. It
may be directed against subordinate group members whose sexual orientation, religion,
nationality, or other characteristics are devalued by those who discriminate against them.
This type of discrimination, when acted out in the form of violence, is known as a hate
crime.
E. Why Study Social Problems?
1) Studying social problems helps us understand the social forces that shape our
lives on both the personal and societal levels.
2) We learn to take a sociological approach as opposed to a commonsense (“what
everybody knows”) approach. Many commonsense notions are “myths” and may
be widely and publicly accepted, even when erroneous.
3) A sociological examination of social problems also enables us to gain new
insights into ourselves and to develop an awareness of the connection between our
own “world” and those of other people.
4) A global perspective reveals that the lives of all people are closely intertwined,
that and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem.
II. THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Sociologists use systematic research techniques and report their findings to other social
scientists for consideration. Sociologists strive to be objective, although complete
objectivity may not be attainable or desirable.
B. According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination is the ability to
see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.
1) The sociological imagination enables us to connect personal troubles to public
issues.
2) Personal troubles are private problems of individuals and the networks of people
with whom they associate regularly. For example, one person’s unemployment is
a personal trouble facing the individual, other family members, and friends.
3) Public issues are matters beyond a person’s control that originate at the regional
or national level and can be resolved only by collective action.
4) The sociological imagination helps us place seemingly personal troubles, such as
being a victim of violence, into a larger social context and see how personal
troubles may be related to public issues.
5) A clearer understanding of our situations may allow us to develop more effective
and better preventions and interventions.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
C. In sociology, examination of social problems primarily focuses on society.
1) Some social problems (e.g., violence and crime) are commonly viewed as
conditions that affect all members of a population.
2) Other social problems (e.g., racialized discrimination and sexual harassment) may
be viewed (correctly or incorrectly) as conditions that affect some members of a
population more than others.
D. Social problems often involve significant discrepancies between the ideals of society and
their actual achievement. One example is discrimination (actions or practice of
dominant group members that have harmful effects on subordinate group members),
which heightens existing inequalities along class, racialization, gender, and age lines. It
may be directed against subordinate group members whose sexual orientation, religion,
nationality, or other characteristics are devalued by those who discriminate against them.
This type of discrimination, when acted out in the form of violence, is known as a hate
crime.
E. Why Study Social Problems?
1) Studying social problems helps us understand the social forces that shape our
lives on both the personal and societal levels.
2) We learn to take a sociological approach as opposed to a commonsense (“what
everybody knows”) approach. Many commonsense notions are “myths” and may
be widely and publicly accepted, even when erroneous.
3) A sociological examination of social problems also enables us to gain new
insights into ourselves and to develop an awareness of the connection between our
own “world” and those of other people.
4) A global perspective reveals that the lives of all people are closely intertwined,
that and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem.
II. THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Sociologists use systematic research techniques and report their findings to other social
scientists for consideration. Sociologists strive to be objective, although complete
objectivity may not be attainable or desirable.
B. According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination is the ability to
see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.
1) The sociological imagination enables us to connect personal troubles to public
issues.
2) Personal troubles are private problems of individuals and the networks of people
with whom they associate regularly. For example, one person’s unemployment is
a personal trouble facing the individual, other family members, and friends.
3) Public issues are matters beyond a person’s control that originate at the regional
or national level and can be resolved only by collective action.
4) The sociological imagination helps us place seemingly personal troubles, such as
being a victim of violence, into a larger social context and see how personal
troubles may be related to public issues.
5) A clearer understanding of our situations may allow us to develop more effective
and better preventions and interventions.
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C. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues in society through
microlevel and macrolevel analysis. Using microlevel analysis, a sociologist might
investigate how fear of unemployment affects workers and their immediate families. A
macrolevel analysis might examine how globalization, and the attendant labour market
restructuring, has impacted Canadian workers and their families.
III. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. How Sociologists View Society
1) Sociologists develop theories and conduct research to determine how social life is
organized. Theories help us interpret social reality in a distinct way by giving us a
framework for organizing our observations and may allow us to describe, explain
or possibly even predict social events.
2) Sociologists refer to a theoretical framework as a perspective, an overall approach
or viewpoint toward some subject.
B. The Functionalist Perspective
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of a number of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function
that contributes to the overall stability of society.
2) These interrelated parts are social institutions (such as families, the economy,
education, and the government) that a society develops to organize its main
concerns and activities so that social needs are met. Each institution performs a
unique function, the contribution that each part makes to the overall stability of
society and the well-being of individuals.
3) Manifest and Latent Functions:
Social institutions perform two different types of societal functions:
manifest functions (the intended and recognized consequences of an activity or
social process) and latent functions (the unintended consequences of an activity or
social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants).
4) Dysfunctions and Social Disorganization:
From the functionalist perspective, social problems arise when social institutions
do not fulfill the functions they are supposed to perform or when dysfunctions
(undesirable consequences of an activity or social process that inhibit a society’s
ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
a. According to functionalists, dysfunctions in social institutions create
social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional values and
norms that serve as the social control mechanisms that, under normal
circumstances, keep people from engaging in nonconforming behaviour.
Although values provide ideas about behaviour, they do not state
explicitly how we should behave; norms do state explicit rules of
behaviour or standards of conduct.
b. Social disorganization is intensified by rapid social change that disrupts
the stability of society. Early sociologists examined the relationship
between social problems and industrialization and urbanization in
Britain, Western Europe, and the United States in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
C. Sociologists make connections between personal and public issues in society through
microlevel and macrolevel analysis. Using microlevel analysis, a sociologist might
investigate how fear of unemployment affects workers and their immediate families. A
macrolevel analysis might examine how globalization, and the attendant labour market
restructuring, has impacted Canadian workers and their families.
III. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. How Sociologists View Society
1) Sociologists develop theories and conduct research to determine how social life is
organized. Theories help us interpret social reality in a distinct way by giving us a
framework for organizing our observations and may allow us to describe, explain
or possibly even predict social events.
2) Sociologists refer to a theoretical framework as a perspective, an overall approach
or viewpoint toward some subject.
B. The Functionalist Perspective
1) According to the functionalist perspective, society is a stable, orderly system
composed of a number of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function
that contributes to the overall stability of society.
2) These interrelated parts are social institutions (such as families, the economy,
education, and the government) that a society develops to organize its main
concerns and activities so that social needs are met. Each institution performs a
unique function, the contribution that each part makes to the overall stability of
society and the well-being of individuals.
3) Manifest and Latent Functions:
Social institutions perform two different types of societal functions:
manifest functions (the intended and recognized consequences of an activity or
social process) and latent functions (the unintended consequences of an activity or
social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants).
4) Dysfunctions and Social Disorganization:
From the functionalist perspective, social problems arise when social institutions
do not fulfill the functions they are supposed to perform or when dysfunctions
(undesirable consequences of an activity or social process that inhibit a society’s
ability to adapt or adjust) occur.
a. According to functionalists, dysfunctions in social institutions create
social disorganization, causing a breakdown in traditional values and
norms that serve as the social control mechanisms that, under normal
circumstances, keep people from engaging in nonconforming behaviour.
Although values provide ideas about behaviour, they do not state
explicitly how we should behave; norms do state explicit rules of
behaviour or standards of conduct.
b. Social disorganization is intensified by rapid social change that disrupts
the stability of society. Early sociologists examined the relationship
between social problems and industrialization and urbanization in
Britain, Western Europe, and the United States in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.
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5) Applying the Functionalist Perspective to Problems of Violence:
Functionalists provide several explanations for violence in societies. One
approach believes that violence arises from a condition of anomie, in which many
individuals have a feeling of helplessness, normlessness, or alienation. Another
functionalist explanation of violence is the lifestyle-routine activity approach, in
which the patterns and timing of people’s daily movements and activities are the
keys to understanding violent personal crimes as well as other types of crime.
C. The Conflict Perspective
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that groups in society are
engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.
2) According to conflict theorists, certain groups of people are privileged while
others are disadvantaged through the unjust use of political, economic, or social
power. This perspective consists of a variety of related approaches that hold
differing views regarding the most important form of conflict.
3) The Value Conflict Perspective:
According to value conflict theorists, social problems are conditions incompatible
with group values.
a. Value clashes are ordinary occurrences in families, communities, and the
larger society, where people commonly hold many divergent values.
Although individuals may share certain core values, they do not share all
values or a common culture (the knowledge, language, values, customs,
and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one
generation to the next in a human group or society).
b. Discrepancies between ideal (the values and beliefs people claim they
hold) and real culture (the values and beliefs they actually follow) are a
source of social problems in all societies.
4) Critical-Conflict Perspective:
According to critical-conflict theorists, social problems arise out of major
contradictions inherent in the way societies are organized.
a. Some of these approaches focus on class inequalities resulting from
capitalism, while others focus on inequalities based on
racialization/ethnicity or gender.
b. According to early German economist Karl Marx, members of the
capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) control the means of production (e.g., the
land, tools, factories, and money for investment) and are at the top of a
system of social stratification that affords them different lifestyles and life
chances from the members of the working class (the proletariat), who
must sell their labour power (ability to work) to capitalists. In the process,
the capitalists derive excessive profit from the workers’ labour.
c. Marx believed that capitalism led workers to experience increased levels
of poverty and alienation, feelings of powerlessness and estrangement
from other people and from oneself. He predicted the workers would
eventually overthrow the capitalist economic system.
5) Some critical-conflict approaches focus on racialized and gendered subordination
instead of on class-based inequalities. Theorists who emphasize discrimination
and inequality based on racialization or ethnicity note that many social problems
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
5) Applying the Functionalist Perspective to Problems of Violence:
Functionalists provide several explanations for violence in societies. One
approach believes that violence arises from a condition of anomie, in which many
individuals have a feeling of helplessness, normlessness, or alienation. Another
functionalist explanation of violence is the lifestyle-routine activity approach, in
which the patterns and timing of people’s daily movements and activities are the
keys to understanding violent personal crimes as well as other types of crime.
C. The Conflict Perspective
1) The conflict perspective is based on the assumption that groups in society are
engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.
2) According to conflict theorists, certain groups of people are privileged while
others are disadvantaged through the unjust use of political, economic, or social
power. This perspective consists of a variety of related approaches that hold
differing views regarding the most important form of conflict.
3) The Value Conflict Perspective:
According to value conflict theorists, social problems are conditions incompatible
with group values.
a. Value clashes are ordinary occurrences in families, communities, and the
larger society, where people commonly hold many divergent values.
Although individuals may share certain core values, they do not share all
values or a common culture (the knowledge, language, values, customs,
and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one
generation to the next in a human group or society).
b. Discrepancies between ideal (the values and beliefs people claim they
hold) and real culture (the values and beliefs they actually follow) are a
source of social problems in all societies.
4) Critical-Conflict Perspective:
According to critical-conflict theorists, social problems arise out of major
contradictions inherent in the way societies are organized.
a. Some of these approaches focus on class inequalities resulting from
capitalism, while others focus on inequalities based on
racialization/ethnicity or gender.
b. According to early German economist Karl Marx, members of the
capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) control the means of production (e.g., the
land, tools, factories, and money for investment) and are at the top of a
system of social stratification that affords them different lifestyles and life
chances from the members of the working class (the proletariat), who
must sell their labour power (ability to work) to capitalists. In the process,
the capitalists derive excessive profit from the workers’ labour.
c. Marx believed that capitalism led workers to experience increased levels
of poverty and alienation, feelings of powerlessness and estrangement
from other people and from oneself. He predicted the workers would
eventually overthrow the capitalist economic system.
5) Some critical-conflict approaches focus on racialized and gendered subordination
instead of on class-based inequalities. Theorists who emphasize discrimination
and inequality based on racialization or ethnicity note that many social problems
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are rooted in the continuing exploitation and subordination of people of colour
and Indigenous people by White people and White-dominant systems.
6) Applying the Conflict Perspective to Problems of Violence:
Critical conflict theorists believe that in capitalist societies the wealthy may
engage in some forms of violence to further their economic interests (e.g., the
abuse of police or military power to protect property) whereas people living in
poverty may engage in other forms of violence as a reaction against the unjust
social and economic conditions they experience daily.
D. The Interactionist Perspective
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on a microlevel analysis of how people act
toward one another and make sense of their daily lives, viewing society as the
sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.
2) Most interactionists study social problems by analyzing the process whereby
certain behaviour is defined as a social problem and how individuals and groups
come to engage in activities that a significant number of people view as a major
social concern.
3) A founder of the interactionist approach, German sociologist Georg Simmel,
investigated the impact of industrialization and urbanization on people’s values
and behaviour within small social units. He noted that rapid changes in
technology and dramatic growth of cities produced new social problems by
breaking up the “geometry of social life.”
4) According to Simmel, alienation is brought about by a decline in personal and
emotional contacts. How people interpret subjective messages they receive from
others, as well as the situations they encounter in their daily life, strongly
influences their behaviour and their perceptions of what constitutes a social
problem.
5) Labelling Theory and the Social Construction of Reality:
Other interactionists examine how people impose meanings on others. According
to sociologist Howard Becker, moral entrepreneurs are persons who use their
own views of right and wrong to establish rules and label others as deviant.
a. Labelling theory suggests that deviants are people who have been
successfully labelled as such by others.
b. It raises questions about why some individuals and types of behaviour are
labelled deviant but others are not.
c. According to some interaction theorists, many social problems can be
linked to the social construction of reality, or the process by which
people’s perception of reality and their subsequent reaction, if any, is
shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience.
d. A related approach that some interactionists favour is the definition of the
situation approach, often called the Thomas Theorum after sociologists
Dorothy S. Thomas and William I. Thomas. The Thomas Theroum
suggests that how people define a situation determines their reaction to it.
If a situation is perceived as real, it is real in its consequences.
e. Sociologist Robert Merton has suggested that when people view a
situation in a certain way and act according to their perceptions, the end
result may be a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
are rooted in the continuing exploitation and subordination of people of colour
and Indigenous people by White people and White-dominant systems.
6) Applying the Conflict Perspective to Problems of Violence:
Critical conflict theorists believe that in capitalist societies the wealthy may
engage in some forms of violence to further their economic interests (e.g., the
abuse of police or military power to protect property) whereas people living in
poverty may engage in other forms of violence as a reaction against the unjust
social and economic conditions they experience daily.
D. The Interactionist Perspective
1) The interactionist perspective focuses on a microlevel analysis of how people act
toward one another and make sense of their daily lives, viewing society as the
sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.
2) Most interactionists study social problems by analyzing the process whereby
certain behaviour is defined as a social problem and how individuals and groups
come to engage in activities that a significant number of people view as a major
social concern.
3) A founder of the interactionist approach, German sociologist Georg Simmel,
investigated the impact of industrialization and urbanization on people’s values
and behaviour within small social units. He noted that rapid changes in
technology and dramatic growth of cities produced new social problems by
breaking up the “geometry of social life.”
4) According to Simmel, alienation is brought about by a decline in personal and
emotional contacts. How people interpret subjective messages they receive from
others, as well as the situations they encounter in their daily life, strongly
influences their behaviour and their perceptions of what constitutes a social
problem.
5) Labelling Theory and the Social Construction of Reality:
Other interactionists examine how people impose meanings on others. According
to sociologist Howard Becker, moral entrepreneurs are persons who use their
own views of right and wrong to establish rules and label others as deviant.
a. Labelling theory suggests that deviants are people who have been
successfully labelled as such by others.
b. It raises questions about why some individuals and types of behaviour are
labelled deviant but others are not.
c. According to some interaction theorists, many social problems can be
linked to the social construction of reality, or the process by which
people’s perception of reality and their subsequent reaction, if any, is
shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience.
d. A related approach that some interactionists favour is the definition of the
situation approach, often called the Thomas Theorum after sociologists
Dorothy S. Thomas and William I. Thomas. The Thomas Theroum
suggests that how people define a situation determines their reaction to it.
If a situation is perceived as real, it is real in its consequences.
e. Sociologist Robert Merton has suggested that when people view a
situation in a certain way and act according to their perceptions, the end
result may be a self-fulfilling prophecy.
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6) Applying Interactionist Perspectives to Problems of Violence:
a. To analyze the problem of violence, interactionists focus on social
interaction, and note that human behaviour is learned through interaction.
For interactionists, violence is a learned response, not an inherent
characteristic.
b. Interactionists also look at the types of social interactions that commonly
lead to violence. The situational approach suggests that violence results
from a specific interaction process, termed a “situational transaction.”
c. According to interactionists, reducing violence requires changing those
societal values that encourage excessive competition and violence.
E. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists begin their analysis by pointing out that mainstream sociological
thought and theory is both androcentric and Eurocentric, in that most sociological
theory is based on the experiences, ideas, and issues of concern for males,
particularly those males of European/Western extraction.
2) There are no “feminist issues” per se since every issue is a feminist issue. When
feminist theorists engage in analysis, they “gender” the issues under study by
looking at the differential impacts of social phenomena for men and women, and
more recently for transgendered and/or non-gendered people as well.
3) Feminist theories typically examine dynamics of power in relationships between
individuals, roles, and structures. This focus on power differentials is shared with
conflict and Marxist theories, but feminist theories add a focus on gendered power
and patriarchy. These theories generally begin an analysis from a particular
“standpoint” by examining social life from the situated vantage points of the
individuals and/or groups involved.
4) A classification system that categorizes various feminist theories includes:
a. theories of difference (men and women experience different realities);
b. theories of inequality (women’s experiences are less privileged or are
disadvantaged relative to men’s); and
c. or, theories of oppression (women are actively subordinated and kept
disadvantaged, both by patriarchal structures and individuals reinforcing
sexist socialization and ideologies).
5) Modern-day feminist theories, if they are reflexive, turn the lenses back upon
themselves. Many contemporary feminists spend a good deal of time
deconstructing the theories they favour, the underlying assumptions, the
exclusions, the inclusiveness, the intersections and the impacts of the analysis.
6) Applying Feminist Perspectives to Problems of Violence:
a. Feminist perspectives of violence highlight issues of dominance and
power, and suggest that inequalities between groups result in violence.
They conclude that people who enjoy power and privilege likely commit
as many acts of violence as those who are disenfranchised, and that main
difference between groups is that those without power are
disproportionately targeted as the perpetrators or viewed as bringing it on
themselves.
b. One feminist perspective suggests that violence against women is a means
of reinforcing patriarchy. Gender stratification is reinforced by powerful
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
6) Applying Interactionist Perspectives to Problems of Violence:
a. To analyze the problem of violence, interactionists focus on social
interaction, and note that human behaviour is learned through interaction.
For interactionists, violence is a learned response, not an inherent
characteristic.
b. Interactionists also look at the types of social interactions that commonly
lead to violence. The situational approach suggests that violence results
from a specific interaction process, termed a “situational transaction.”
c. According to interactionists, reducing violence requires changing those
societal values that encourage excessive competition and violence.
E. Feminist Perspectives
1) Feminist theorists begin their analysis by pointing out that mainstream sociological
thought and theory is both androcentric and Eurocentric, in that most sociological
theory is based on the experiences, ideas, and issues of concern for males,
particularly those males of European/Western extraction.
2) There are no “feminist issues” per se since every issue is a feminist issue. When
feminist theorists engage in analysis, they “gender” the issues under study by
looking at the differential impacts of social phenomena for men and women, and
more recently for transgendered and/or non-gendered people as well.
3) Feminist theories typically examine dynamics of power in relationships between
individuals, roles, and structures. This focus on power differentials is shared with
conflict and Marxist theories, but feminist theories add a focus on gendered power
and patriarchy. These theories generally begin an analysis from a particular
“standpoint” by examining social life from the situated vantage points of the
individuals and/or groups involved.
4) A classification system that categorizes various feminist theories includes:
a. theories of difference (men and women experience different realities);
b. theories of inequality (women’s experiences are less privileged or are
disadvantaged relative to men’s); and
c. or, theories of oppression (women are actively subordinated and kept
disadvantaged, both by patriarchal structures and individuals reinforcing
sexist socialization and ideologies).
5) Modern-day feminist theories, if they are reflexive, turn the lenses back upon
themselves. Many contemporary feminists spend a good deal of time
deconstructing the theories they favour, the underlying assumptions, the
exclusions, the inclusiveness, the intersections and the impacts of the analysis.
6) Applying Feminist Perspectives to Problems of Violence:
a. Feminist perspectives of violence highlight issues of dominance and
power, and suggest that inequalities between groups result in violence.
They conclude that people who enjoy power and privilege likely commit
as many acts of violence as those who are disenfranchised, and that main
difference between groups is that those without power are
disproportionately targeted as the perpetrators or viewed as bringing it on
themselves.
b. One feminist perspective suggests that violence against women is a means
of reinforcing patriarchy. Gender stratification is reinforced by powerful
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physical, psychological, and social mechanisms of control, including force
or the threat of force. Fear of violence forces women to adapt their ways
of being in and navigating the social world in order to ensure they are not
in a position to be victimized by men.
IV. SOCIAL CHANGE AND REDUCING SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. The concept of social change is important to our discussion of reducing social problems.
Social change often occurs over time. Some efforts to deal with social problems are
short-term strategies, whereas others are middle-term remedies, and still others constitute
long-term efforts to alleviate the root causes of a social problem. For example, efforts to
alleviate individual unemployment or reduce unemployment rates in a community have a
different temporal dimension than long-term efforts to change the political economy in
such a manner that high levels of employment and greater wage equity are brought about
throughout a nation or nations. Some discussions of social change sound idealistic or
utopian; however, for most social problems, a combination of strategies will be required
to reduce them (for example, unemployment would need multi-level strategies to
effectively prevent it).
V. MICROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Seeking Individual Solutions to Personal Problems
1) Microlevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how individuals
operate within small groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their
family, or friends. In this case, most people turn to their primary groups. Primary
groups include one’s family, close friends, and other peers with whom one
routinely shares the more personal experiences in life (such as school- or work-
related peer groups).
2) According to sociologists, members of our primary groups are usually there to
support us even when others are not. Consequently, many people turn first to
family members and friends. For example, some analysts believe that we have
many more people who are without a domicile (who are technically “homeless”)
than current statistics indicate: whenever possible, homeless individuals may live
with relatives or friends, many of whom may already live in overcrowded and
sometimes substandard housing. When people seek such short-term solutions to
personal troubles, most believe the situation will be temporary. However,
problems that are widespread or embedded in the larger society may stretch into
months or years without resolution. At best, individualized efforts to reduce a
problem are short-term measures, which some critics refer as the “band-aid
approach” because such efforts most often do not eliminate the causes of the
problem.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
physical, psychological, and social mechanisms of control, including force
or the threat of force. Fear of violence forces women to adapt their ways
of being in and navigating the social world in order to ensure they are not
in a position to be victimized by men.
IV. SOCIAL CHANGE AND REDUCING SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. The concept of social change is important to our discussion of reducing social problems.
Social change often occurs over time. Some efforts to deal with social problems are
short-term strategies, whereas others are middle-term remedies, and still others constitute
long-term efforts to alleviate the root causes of a social problem. For example, efforts to
alleviate individual unemployment or reduce unemployment rates in a community have a
different temporal dimension than long-term efforts to change the political economy in
such a manner that high levels of employment and greater wage equity are brought about
throughout a nation or nations. Some discussions of social change sound idealistic or
utopian; however, for most social problems, a combination of strategies will be required
to reduce them (for example, unemployment would need multi-level strategies to
effectively prevent it).
V. MICROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Seeking Individual Solutions to Personal Problems
1) Microlevel analysis of solutions to social problems focuses on how individuals
operate within small groups to try to remedy a problem that affects them, their
family, or friends. In this case, most people turn to their primary groups. Primary
groups include one’s family, close friends, and other peers with whom one
routinely shares the more personal experiences in life (such as school- or work-
related peer groups).
2) According to sociologists, members of our primary groups are usually there to
support us even when others are not. Consequently, many people turn first to
family members and friends. For example, some analysts believe that we have
many more people who are without a domicile (who are technically “homeless”)
than current statistics indicate: whenever possible, homeless individuals may live
with relatives or friends, many of whom may already live in overcrowded and
sometimes substandard housing. When people seek such short-term solutions to
personal troubles, most believe the situation will be temporary. However,
problems that are widespread or embedded in the larger society may stretch into
months or years without resolution. At best, individualized efforts to reduce a
problem are short-term measures, which some critics refer as the “band-aid
approach” because such efforts most often do not eliminate the causes of the
problem.
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3) Some microlevel approaches to reducing social problems focus on how
individuals can do something about the problems they face. For example, a person
who is unemployed or among the “working poor” because of low wages, seasonal
employment, or other factors may be urged to get more education or training and
work experience in order to find a “better” job and have the opportunity for
upward mobility.
VI. MID-RANGE ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Groups That Help People Cope With Their Problems
1) Groups that attempt to reduce a social problem by helping individuals cope with
it, or to eliminate it from their own lives, are commonplace in our society (e.g.
Alcoholics Anonymous or “AA”). The basic assumption of most mid-range
approaches to reducing social problems is that prevention and intervention are
most effective at the personal and community levels.
2) Typically, self-help groups bring together individuals who have experienced the
same problem and have the same goals- quitting the problematic behaviour. An
underlying assumption of this approach is that some social problems can best be
reduced by reaching one person at a time. Volunteers who have had similar
problems (and believe they are on the road to overcoming them) often act as role
models for newer members.
3) Mid-range approaches may bring changes in the individual’s life; however, such
groups typically do not systematically address the larger structural factors (such
as unemployment, work-related stress, and aggressive advertising campaigns) that
may contribute to the problems. As a result, larger, societal intervention is
necessary to reduce the underlying problems that contribute to individual
behaviour. For example, AA typically does not lobby for more stringent laws
pertaining to drunk driving or the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages.
B. Grassroots Groups That Work for Community-Based Change
1) Some grassroots groups focus on bringing about a change that may reduce or
eliminate a social problem in a specific community or region. From this approach,
people learn how to empower themselves against local, provincial, territorial, and
national government officials; corporate executives; and media figures who
determine what constitutes the “news” in their area.
2) Social analysts suggest that more community dialogue is needed on social issues,
and more people need to become involved in grassroots social movements.
Because social movements have not become institutionalized and are outside the
political mainstream, they empower outsiders by offering them an opportunity to
have their voices heard.
3) Grassroots organizations and other local structures are crucial to national social
movements because these movements must recruit members and gain the
economic resources necessary for nationwide or global social activism.
Numerous studies have shown that the local level constitutes a necessary micro-
foundation for larger-scale social movement activism.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
3) Some microlevel approaches to reducing social problems focus on how
individuals can do something about the problems they face. For example, a person
who is unemployed or among the “working poor” because of low wages, seasonal
employment, or other factors may be urged to get more education or training and
work experience in order to find a “better” job and have the opportunity for
upward mobility.
VI. MID-RANGE ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Groups That Help People Cope With Their Problems
1) Groups that attempt to reduce a social problem by helping individuals cope with
it, or to eliminate it from their own lives, are commonplace in our society (e.g.
Alcoholics Anonymous or “AA”). The basic assumption of most mid-range
approaches to reducing social problems is that prevention and intervention are
most effective at the personal and community levels.
2) Typically, self-help groups bring together individuals who have experienced the
same problem and have the same goals- quitting the problematic behaviour. An
underlying assumption of this approach is that some social problems can best be
reduced by reaching one person at a time. Volunteers who have had similar
problems (and believe they are on the road to overcoming them) often act as role
models for newer members.
3) Mid-range approaches may bring changes in the individual’s life; however, such
groups typically do not systematically address the larger structural factors (such
as unemployment, work-related stress, and aggressive advertising campaigns) that
may contribute to the problems. As a result, larger, societal intervention is
necessary to reduce the underlying problems that contribute to individual
behaviour. For example, AA typically does not lobby for more stringent laws
pertaining to drunk driving or the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages.
B. Grassroots Groups That Work for Community-Based Change
1) Some grassroots groups focus on bringing about a change that may reduce or
eliminate a social problem in a specific community or region. From this approach,
people learn how to empower themselves against local, provincial, territorial, and
national government officials; corporate executives; and media figures who
determine what constitutes the “news” in their area.
2) Social analysts suggest that more community dialogue is needed on social issues,
and more people need to become involved in grassroots social movements.
Because social movements have not become institutionalized and are outside the
political mainstream, they empower outsiders by offering them an opportunity to
have their voices heard.
3) Grassroots organizations and other local structures are crucial to national social
movements because these movements must recruit members and gain the
economic resources necessary for nationwide or global social activism.
Numerous studies have shown that the local level constitutes a necessary micro-
foundation for larger-scale social movement activism.
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4) Some social movements participate in what has been defined as counter-
hegemonic practice by Canadian sociologist William K. Carroll. Counter-
hegemonic practice refers to creating true alternatives to hegemony, although
counter-hegemonic social movements need to be aware of the movement’s
potential to create new injustices by defining its own issues as “the” issues.
VII. MACROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Working Through Special Interest Groups for Political Change
1) Examples of special interest groups include the Canadian Labour Congress, the
Reform Party, and REAL Women. They are often referred to as pressure groups
or lobbies, and may be categorized on the basis of four factors:
2) Issues. Some groups focus on single issues (such as abortion, gun control, or
teaching acceptance for family diversity in Canadian schools); others focus on
multiple issues (such as equal access to education, employment, and health care).
3) View of the present system of wealth and power. Some groups make radical
demands that would involve the end of patriarchy, capitalism, governmental
bureaucracy, or other existing power structures; others do not attack the
legitimacy of the present system of wealth and power but insist on specific social
reforms.
4) Beliefs about elites. Some groups want to influence elites (or incorporate
movement leaders into the elite); others want to replace the existing elites with
persons whom they believe share their own interests and concerns.
5) Type of Political Action. There are often many different groups, all of whom do
not entirely agree on the nature or extent of the problems of proposed solutions,
who may try to gain recognition from elected officials or bureaucrats for their
agendas.
B. Working through National Social Movements to Reduce Problems
1) Collective behavior and national social movements are significant ways in which
people seek to resolve social problems. Examples of collective behavior include
public demonstrations and riots.
2) Beginning with the 1919 Egyptian revolution against British occupation, an
increasingly popular form of public demonstration is civil disobedience. People
often seek to bring about change through actions such as sit-ins, marches,
boycotts, and strikes. When people refuse to abide by a policy or law and
challenge authorities to do something about it, they are demanding social change
with some sense of urgency. Sometimes referred to as protest crowds, these
groups engage in activities that they hope will achieve specific political goals.
3) National social movements are divided into five major categories:
a. Reform movements seek to improve society by changing some specific
aspect of the social structure. Environmental groups and disability rights
groups are examples of groups of people who seek to bring about a change
that they perceive will benefit themselves and others. Activists in reform
movements typically seek to bring about change by working within the
existing organizational structures of society.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
4) Some social movements participate in what has been defined as counter-
hegemonic practice by Canadian sociologist William K. Carroll. Counter-
hegemonic practice refers to creating true alternatives to hegemony, although
counter-hegemonic social movements need to be aware of the movement’s
potential to create new injustices by defining its own issues as “the” issues.
VII. MACROLEVEL ATTEMPTS TO SOLVE SOCIAL PROBLEMS
A. Working Through Special Interest Groups for Political Change
1) Examples of special interest groups include the Canadian Labour Congress, the
Reform Party, and REAL Women. They are often referred to as pressure groups
or lobbies, and may be categorized on the basis of four factors:
2) Issues. Some groups focus on single issues (such as abortion, gun control, or
teaching acceptance for family diversity in Canadian schools); others focus on
multiple issues (such as equal access to education, employment, and health care).
3) View of the present system of wealth and power. Some groups make radical
demands that would involve the end of patriarchy, capitalism, governmental
bureaucracy, or other existing power structures; others do not attack the
legitimacy of the present system of wealth and power but insist on specific social
reforms.
4) Beliefs about elites. Some groups want to influence elites (or incorporate
movement leaders into the elite); others want to replace the existing elites with
persons whom they believe share their own interests and concerns.
5) Type of Political Action. There are often many different groups, all of whom do
not entirely agree on the nature or extent of the problems of proposed solutions,
who may try to gain recognition from elected officials or bureaucrats for their
agendas.
B. Working through National Social Movements to Reduce Problems
1) Collective behavior and national social movements are significant ways in which
people seek to resolve social problems. Examples of collective behavior include
public demonstrations and riots.
2) Beginning with the 1919 Egyptian revolution against British occupation, an
increasingly popular form of public demonstration is civil disobedience. People
often seek to bring about change through actions such as sit-ins, marches,
boycotts, and strikes. When people refuse to abide by a policy or law and
challenge authorities to do something about it, they are demanding social change
with some sense of urgency. Sometimes referred to as protest crowds, these
groups engage in activities that they hope will achieve specific political goals.
3) National social movements are divided into five major categories:
a. Reform movements seek to improve society by changing some specific
aspect of the social structure. Environmental groups and disability rights
groups are examples of groups of people who seek to bring about a change
that they perceive will benefit themselves and others. Activists in reform
movements typically seek to bring about change by working within the
existing organizational structures of society.
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b. Revolutionary movements seek to bring about a total change in society.
Examples include utopian groups and radical terrorists who use fear tactics
to intimidate and—at least briefly—gain concessions from those with
whom they disagree ideologically. Some radical terrorists may kill people
in their pursuit of a society that more closely conforms to their own
worldview.
c. Religious movements (also referred to as expressive movements) seek to
renovate or renew people through inner change. For this reason, religious
movements are often linked to local and regional organizations that seek
to bring about changes in the individual’s life. National religious
movements often seek to persuade political officials to enact laws that will
replace or eliminate what they perceive to be social problems.
d. Alternative movements seek limited change in some aspects of people’s
behaviour and currently include a variety of “New Age” movements
which emphasize such things as the development of a new national
spiritual consciousness.
e. Resistance movements seek to prevent change or undo change that has
already occurred. In public debates over social policies, most social
movements advocating change will face resistance from the members of
reactive movements that hold opposing viewpoints and want social policy
to reflect their own beliefs and values. Examples of resistance movements
include those which oppose same sex marriage, anti-abortion groups, such
as “Operation Rescue,” which seek to close clinics which provide
abortions and to recriminalize abortion; and anti-immigrant groups
seeking to close Canadian borders to outsiders or to place harsher
demands on immigrant workers.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING
Professor Kathleen McKinney, one of the recipients of the Hans O. Mauksch Award for
distinguished contributions to undergraduate sociology, is an advocate of active learning and has
provided outstanding suggestions for classroom techniques to encourage students to do more
than simply listen to a lecture. According to McKinney, active learning techniques are most
likely to succeed when instructors prepare students in advance by providing specific objectives
for the activities and explaining how using active learning techniques will benefit them. It is
important to solicit student feedback afterwards in order to improve the activity in the future.
Four of McKinney’s suggestions are summarized here because they are incorporated into
teaching suggestions throughout this manual:
1. Think-Pair-Share: After giving students a question or problem to solve, give them a few
minutes to think about the problem alone. Then have them discuss their ideas with the
person sitting next to them. Finally, have student pairs share their ideas with the whole
class or a larger group. This can be done in any size class, including those meeting in
lecture halls with permanently fixed seating.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
b. Revolutionary movements seek to bring about a total change in society.
Examples include utopian groups and radical terrorists who use fear tactics
to intimidate and—at least briefly—gain concessions from those with
whom they disagree ideologically. Some radical terrorists may kill people
in their pursuit of a society that more closely conforms to their own
worldview.
c. Religious movements (also referred to as expressive movements) seek to
renovate or renew people through inner change. For this reason, religious
movements are often linked to local and regional organizations that seek
to bring about changes in the individual’s life. National religious
movements often seek to persuade political officials to enact laws that will
replace or eliminate what they perceive to be social problems.
d. Alternative movements seek limited change in some aspects of people’s
behaviour and currently include a variety of “New Age” movements
which emphasize such things as the development of a new national
spiritual consciousness.
e. Resistance movements seek to prevent change or undo change that has
already occurred. In public debates over social policies, most social
movements advocating change will face resistance from the members of
reactive movements that hold opposing viewpoints and want social policy
to reflect their own beliefs and values. Examples of resistance movements
include those which oppose same sex marriage, anti-abortion groups, such
as “Operation Rescue,” which seek to close clinics which provide
abortions and to recriminalize abortion; and anti-immigrant groups
seeking to close Canadian borders to outsiders or to place harsher
demands on immigrant workers.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING
Professor Kathleen McKinney, one of the recipients of the Hans O. Mauksch Award for
distinguished contributions to undergraduate sociology, is an advocate of active learning and has
provided outstanding suggestions for classroom techniques to encourage students to do more
than simply listen to a lecture. According to McKinney, active learning techniques are most
likely to succeed when instructors prepare students in advance by providing specific objectives
for the activities and explaining how using active learning techniques will benefit them. It is
important to solicit student feedback afterwards in order to improve the activity in the future.
Four of McKinney’s suggestions are summarized here because they are incorporated into
teaching suggestions throughout this manual:
1. Think-Pair-Share: After giving students a question or problem to solve, give them a few
minutes to think about the problem alone. Then have them discuss their ideas with the
person sitting next to them. Finally, have student pairs share their ideas with the whole
class or a larger group. This can be done in any size class, including those meeting in
lecture halls with permanently fixed seating.
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2. Collaborative Learning Groups: Students work in groups to fulfill a task. Each group
chooses a leader and someone to take notes, and the group presents a response or a paper
to the entire class. This requires flexibility in classroom space or having some other
location or time when students can confer with each other.
3. Analysis or reaction to videos: Before showing a video, prepare students with questions
or ideas on which to focus. After the video, ask them to answer the questions or write a
review or reaction, applying sociological concepts and perspectives. Have the students
present their ideas to the class.
4. Student debates: Having students prepare for and present debates on the social issues
discussed in the text and in class provides an outstanding opportunity to expose them to
more than one viewpoint. Students should be given advance assignments, suggested
resources, and a game plan for how to approach the debates so they can take a position,
gather data, and support their viewpoints.
Kathleen McKinney, Sociology, Illinois State University, Normal, Il, kmckinne@ilstu.edu
ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VIOLENCE
Focus on Community Action
Have a class discussion about prevention and intervention strategies for reducing youth violence
and gang participation in your community. Although people have initially laughed at ideas such
as midnight basketball, bowling, or dances, some social analysts believe that activities such as
this keep some young people out of trouble. What other types of activities and training might be
useful in reducing youth-related violence in the community?
Separate students in to small groups and have students investigate the current programs in place
to deter youth from engaging in violence. Have these programs or initiatives been effective in
their communities? Why or why not? Next, have them develop a set of suggestions for
programs that might provide other opportunities for young people or activities that might help
youth make better life choices. What resources would be necessary to bring such programs into
being? How would the costs of these programs compare with the cost of processing people
through the justice system and following up with young offenders? Each group should prepare a
small report on their findings and share it with the rest of the class.
Focus on Theoretical Analysis
Based on Chapter One or other information you might wish to provide to students, have the class
decide on a social problem (such as youth violence) they would like to analyze during the next
class meeting. Set up four collaborative learning groups and determine which group will be the
“experts” on each of the major theoretical perspectives. Students should bring notes to turn in to
their note-taker on the following: (1) key factors involved in the theoretical perspective, (2) how
that approach might explain the social problem under consideration, (3) how that approach might
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
2. Collaborative Learning Groups: Students work in groups to fulfill a task. Each group
chooses a leader and someone to take notes, and the group presents a response or a paper
to the entire class. This requires flexibility in classroom space or having some other
location or time when students can confer with each other.
3. Analysis or reaction to videos: Before showing a video, prepare students with questions
or ideas on which to focus. After the video, ask them to answer the questions or write a
review or reaction, applying sociological concepts and perspectives. Have the students
present their ideas to the class.
4. Student debates: Having students prepare for and present debates on the social issues
discussed in the text and in class provides an outstanding opportunity to expose them to
more than one viewpoint. Students should be given advance assignments, suggested
resources, and a game plan for how to approach the debates so they can take a position,
gather data, and support their viewpoints.
Kathleen McKinney, Sociology, Illinois State University, Normal, Il, kmckinne@ilstu.edu
ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH
PROBLEMS RELATED TO VIOLENCE
Focus on Community Action
Have a class discussion about prevention and intervention strategies for reducing youth violence
and gang participation in your community. Although people have initially laughed at ideas such
as midnight basketball, bowling, or dances, some social analysts believe that activities such as
this keep some young people out of trouble. What other types of activities and training might be
useful in reducing youth-related violence in the community?
Separate students in to small groups and have students investigate the current programs in place
to deter youth from engaging in violence. Have these programs or initiatives been effective in
their communities? Why or why not? Next, have them develop a set of suggestions for
programs that might provide other opportunities for young people or activities that might help
youth make better life choices. What resources would be necessary to bring such programs into
being? How would the costs of these programs compare with the cost of processing people
through the justice system and following up with young offenders? Each group should prepare a
small report on their findings and share it with the rest of the class.
Focus on Theoretical Analysis
Based on Chapter One or other information you might wish to provide to students, have the class
decide on a social problem (such as youth violence) they would like to analyze during the next
class meeting. Set up four collaborative learning groups and determine which group will be the
“experts” on each of the major theoretical perspectives. Students should bring notes to turn in to
their note-taker on the following: (1) key factors involved in the theoretical perspective, (2) how
that approach might explain the social problem under consideration, (3) how that approach might
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suggest resolving the problem, and (4) major strengths and weaknesses of the theoretical
perspective as applied to that problem.
Have students meet in their collaborative learning groups for about 20-30 minutes (depending on
the length of your class) to compile their notes and prepare a presentation for the entire class.
Then, ask group leaders to appoint other people in their group to do various aspects of the
presentation, so that other members do not become dependent on the leader doing most of the
group’s work and talking.
Focus on Media Engagement
Ask students to do a content analysis of television programs such as Saturday morning cartoons,
prime-time police and hospital shows, college and professional sporting events, and Internet
websites which are likely to depict violent acts. Also have students go to web sites such as Media
Watch (http://www.mediawatch.com) and Media Awareness Network (www.media-
awareness.ca) to get the latest “Television and Internet Statistics” on how many hours children
spend watching television and surfing the Internet and what perceptions they have about violence
in media. For example, a 2005 Canadian study found this in regard to children and Internet
usage:
• Almost one-third of the 50 favourite Web sites listed by kids incorporate material that is
violent (28 percent) or highly sexualized (32 percent). Kids in Grades 8 and 9 include these
sites in their list of favourites most frequently visited.
• Two sites that appear in the top four most popular sites with students in Grades 8 to 11 –
Newgrounds and eBaumsworld – contain mature content. These sites also appear on the list
of favourites for Grade 6 and 7 students.
Students should take note of the frequency of violent acts on television programs and the
Internet. As well, they should write about the gendered, racialized and class dimensions of each
violent act depicted. Were they surprised with their findings? Why or why not? Have students
bring their notes on what they observed on the television and Internet so they can share
information with the rest of the class.
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION
1. How can the sociological imagination help us as we deal with social problems that affect us
personally? What kinds of insights might advanced sociological training provide for a person
who wants to engage in problem solving in politics, government, education, the military, or
other social organizations and institutions?
2. Has Canada’s adoption of harsher penalties for people convicted of hate crimes had any
impact for victims or perpetrators? What, if any, impacts might these penalties have had so
far?
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
suggest resolving the problem, and (4) major strengths and weaknesses of the theoretical
perspective as applied to that problem.
Have students meet in their collaborative learning groups for about 20-30 minutes (depending on
the length of your class) to compile their notes and prepare a presentation for the entire class.
Then, ask group leaders to appoint other people in their group to do various aspects of the
presentation, so that other members do not become dependent on the leader doing most of the
group’s work and talking.
Focus on Media Engagement
Ask students to do a content analysis of television programs such as Saturday morning cartoons,
prime-time police and hospital shows, college and professional sporting events, and Internet
websites which are likely to depict violent acts. Also have students go to web sites such as Media
Watch (http://www.mediawatch.com) and Media Awareness Network (www.media-
awareness.ca) to get the latest “Television and Internet Statistics” on how many hours children
spend watching television and surfing the Internet and what perceptions they have about violence
in media. For example, a 2005 Canadian study found this in regard to children and Internet
usage:
• Almost one-third of the 50 favourite Web sites listed by kids incorporate material that is
violent (28 percent) or highly sexualized (32 percent). Kids in Grades 8 and 9 include these
sites in their list of favourites most frequently visited.
• Two sites that appear in the top four most popular sites with students in Grades 8 to 11 –
Newgrounds and eBaumsworld – contain mature content. These sites also appear on the list
of favourites for Grade 6 and 7 students.
Students should take note of the frequency of violent acts on television programs and the
Internet. As well, they should write about the gendered, racialized and class dimensions of each
violent act depicted. Were they surprised with their findings? Why or why not? Have students
bring their notes on what they observed on the television and Internet so they can share
information with the rest of the class.
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION
1. How can the sociological imagination help us as we deal with social problems that affect us
personally? What kinds of insights might advanced sociological training provide for a person
who wants to engage in problem solving in politics, government, education, the military, or
other social organizations and institutions?
2. Has Canada’s adoption of harsher penalties for people convicted of hate crimes had any
impact for victims or perpetrators? What, if any, impacts might these penalties have had so
far?
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3. Some critical-conflict theorists believe that social problems arise from the major
contradictions inherent in capitalist economies. What roles does violence play in a capitalist
economy?
4. How might labelling theory work with the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy to increase
or decrease the life chances of a youth who is suspected of committing a deviant act?
5. Some feminist theorists suggest that the use of violence against women is one way that men
use to maintain and reinforce patriarchal oppression throughout society. Construct arguments
that support and/or refute this position.
6. Suppose that you were given the economic resources and political clout to reduce a major
social problem. Which problem would you choose? What steps would you take to alleviate
the problem? How would you measure your success or failure in reducing or eliminating the
problem?
7. Do governments at all levels in Canada listen to their constituents about social issues? What
evidence can you find to support that they do or do not? Why is the situation the way it is?
AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION
African Canadian Issues Collection—This 5-part collection of NFB titles illustrates that there is
a life beyond the streets for inner city youth. A gritty focus on the serious problems of poverty,
drug abuse, violence and street gangs. 2006. Varying clip lengths. National Film Board of
Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Charting New Waters: Responding to Violence against Women with Disabilities—This is a video
and a study guide about violence against women with disabilities. 1996. 38 mins. National Film
Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Cheating Death —This documentary tells the story of a young Toronto man and the little
understood world of guns, gangs and drugs. 2004. 24 mins. National Film Board of Canada,
www.nfb.ca.
Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century—The four films in Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century
provide teachers with tools to engage students to search for a “culture of peace” in our homes,
schools, neighbourhoods and global communities. 2002. 100 mins. National Film Board of
Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Exiles in Lotusland—This video is gritty look a the life of Canadian youth living on the edge,
suicide and “street kid” culture. 2005. 71 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
It’s a Girl’s World—This film looks at bullying and social power in a clique of 10 year old girls.
2004. 54 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
3. Some critical-conflict theorists believe that social problems arise from the major
contradictions inherent in capitalist economies. What roles does violence play in a capitalist
economy?
4. How might labelling theory work with the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy to increase
or decrease the life chances of a youth who is suspected of committing a deviant act?
5. Some feminist theorists suggest that the use of violence against women is one way that men
use to maintain and reinforce patriarchal oppression throughout society. Construct arguments
that support and/or refute this position.
6. Suppose that you were given the economic resources and political clout to reduce a major
social problem. Which problem would you choose? What steps would you take to alleviate
the problem? How would you measure your success or failure in reducing or eliminating the
problem?
7. Do governments at all levels in Canada listen to their constituents about social issues? What
evidence can you find to support that they do or do not? Why is the situation the way it is?
AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION
African Canadian Issues Collection—This 5-part collection of NFB titles illustrates that there is
a life beyond the streets for inner city youth. A gritty focus on the serious problems of poverty,
drug abuse, violence and street gangs. 2006. Varying clip lengths. National Film Board of
Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Charting New Waters: Responding to Violence against Women with Disabilities—This is a video
and a study guide about violence against women with disabilities. 1996. 38 mins. National Film
Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Cheating Death —This documentary tells the story of a young Toronto man and the little
understood world of guns, gangs and drugs. 2004. 24 mins. National Film Board of Canada,
www.nfb.ca.
Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century—The four films in Cultivating Peace in the 21st Century
provide teachers with tools to engage students to search for a “culture of peace” in our homes,
schools, neighbourhoods and global communities. 2002. 100 mins. National Film Board of
Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Exiles in Lotusland—This video is gritty look a the life of Canadian youth living on the edge,
suicide and “street kid” culture. 2005. 71 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
It’s a Girl’s World—This film looks at bullying and social power in a clique of 10 year old girls.
2004. 54 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Kids in Jail—This partially animated documentary shares the experiences of several incarcerated
youths as they reflect upon their lives, on what led to incarceration and on their futures. 2008. 57
mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Still Longshots —This documentary follows four “at-risk” young people through a weekend long
video making workshop. 2007. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
The Line— A young woman is raped when a one-night stand far from home goes terribly wrong.
In the aftermath, as she struggles to make sense of what happened, she decides to make a film
about the relationship between her own experience and the tangle of political, legal, and cultural
questions that surround issues of sex and consent. 2010. 24 mins. Media Education Foundation,
www.mediaed.org.
Tough Guise: Violence, Media, & the Crisis in Masculinity—While the social construction of
femininity has been widely examined, the dominant role of masculinity has until recently
remained largely invisible. Tough Guise is the first educational video geared toward
systematically examining the relationship between pop-cultural imagery and the social
construction of masculine identities in the U.S. at the dawn of the 21st century. 1999. 82 mins.
Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org.
CRITICAL READINGS
Agnew, Vijay (Ed.). 2009. Racialized Migrant Women in Canada: Essays on Health, Violence,
and Equity. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Blyth, Maggie and Enver Solomon (Eds.). 2009. Prevention and Youth Crime: Is Early
Intervention Working? Bristol, UK: Policy Press.
Carroll, William K. (Ed.). 1997. Organizing Dissent: Contemporary Social Movements in Theory
and Practice. Toronto, ON: Garamond Press.
Jiwani, Yasmin. 2006. Discourses of Denial: Mediations of Race, Gender and Violence.
Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Johnson, Allan G. 1991. The Forest for the Trees: An Introduction to Sociological Thinking.
Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Kutner, Lawrence. 2008. Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth about Video Games and
What Parents Can Do. Toronto, ON: Simon and Schuster.
Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Minaker, Joanne C. and Bryn Hogeveen. 2009. Youth, Crime and Society: Issues of power and
Justice. Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schneider, Steven. 2009. Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada. Mississauga, ON: J.
Wiley and Sons Canada.
Totten, Mark D. 2001. Guys, Gangs, and Girlfriend Abuse. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press
Ltd.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Kids in Jail—This partially animated documentary shares the experiences of several incarcerated
youths as they reflect upon their lives, on what led to incarceration and on their futures. 2008. 57
mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Still Longshots —This documentary follows four “at-risk” young people through a weekend long
video making workshop. 2007. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
The Line— A young woman is raped when a one-night stand far from home goes terribly wrong.
In the aftermath, as she struggles to make sense of what happened, she decides to make a film
about the relationship between her own experience and the tangle of political, legal, and cultural
questions that surround issues of sex and consent. 2010. 24 mins. Media Education Foundation,
www.mediaed.org.
Tough Guise: Violence, Media, & the Crisis in Masculinity—While the social construction of
femininity has been widely examined, the dominant role of masculinity has until recently
remained largely invisible. Tough Guise is the first educational video geared toward
systematically examining the relationship between pop-cultural imagery and the social
construction of masculine identities in the U.S. at the dawn of the 21st century. 1999. 82 mins.
Media Education Foundation. www.mediaed.org.
CRITICAL READINGS
Agnew, Vijay (Ed.). 2009. Racialized Migrant Women in Canada: Essays on Health, Violence,
and Equity. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Blyth, Maggie and Enver Solomon (Eds.). 2009. Prevention and Youth Crime: Is Early
Intervention Working? Bristol, UK: Policy Press.
Carroll, William K. (Ed.). 1997. Organizing Dissent: Contemporary Social Movements in Theory
and Practice. Toronto, ON: Garamond Press.
Jiwani, Yasmin. 2006. Discourses of Denial: Mediations of Race, Gender and Violence.
Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Johnson, Allan G. 1991. The Forest for the Trees: An Introduction to Sociological Thinking.
Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Kutner, Lawrence. 2008. Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth about Video Games and
What Parents Can Do. Toronto, ON: Simon and Schuster.
Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Minaker, Joanne C. and Bryn Hogeveen. 2009. Youth, Crime and Society: Issues of power and
Justice. Toronto, ON: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schneider, Steven. 2009. Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada. Mississauga, ON: J.
Wiley and Sons Canada.
Totten, Mark D. 2001. Guys, Gangs, and Girlfriend Abuse. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press
Ltd.
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 2
Poverty in the Canadian Context
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Canadians believe they live in a meritocracy, where success is possible for anyone who works
hard enough. Many Canadians, along with more than 1.3 billion people worldwide live in
absolute poverty today, a life threatening condition. In fact, more than 600 million people
globally suffer from chronic malnutrition, an estimated 40 million of which die each year from
hunger-related conditions. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of large
social groups based on their control over basic resources. Stratification in Canada—which is
based on the class system—is linked with global systems of stratification that affect people’s life
chances. A person’s position in a class system is determined by the wealth, power, and prestige
that the person has. Stratification also exists on a global basis. Among the aspects of the
Canadian class system that sociologists study are the classes themselves and the unequal
distribution of people—by age, racialization/ethnicity, gender, and household composition—
across those class divisions. Sociologists also study the consequences of living in poverty,
including poor health and nutrition, housing, and education. Explanations for poverty include
individualistic, cultural, and structural.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 2, students should be able to:
1. Analyse poverty in Canada within a global context.
2. Understand wealth and income inequalities, with particular emphasis on understanding the
situations of the lower classes in Canada.
3. Describe the situation of poverty in Canada, and be able to differentiate between relative and
absolute poverty.
4. Discuss the consequences of poverty for people in Canada with regard to health, nutrition
and housing.
5. Critically analyse how Canada deals with poverty.
6. Explain the system of social welfare in Canada and demonstrate how neoliberal policies have
impacted the Canadian welfare state since the 1970s.
7. State the individual, cultural, and structural explanations of poverty, and explain why
sociologists prefer structural explanations.
8. Discuss various ways that poverty can be reduced in Canada including being able to critically
examine proposed poverty reduction strategies.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 2
Poverty in the Canadian Context
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Canadians believe they live in a meritocracy, where success is possible for anyone who works
hard enough. Many Canadians, along with more than 1.3 billion people worldwide live in
absolute poverty today, a life threatening condition. In fact, more than 600 million people
globally suffer from chronic malnutrition, an estimated 40 million of which die each year from
hunger-related conditions. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of large
social groups based on their control over basic resources. Stratification in Canada—which is
based on the class system—is linked with global systems of stratification that affect people’s life
chances. A person’s position in a class system is determined by the wealth, power, and prestige
that the person has. Stratification also exists on a global basis. Among the aspects of the
Canadian class system that sociologists study are the classes themselves and the unequal
distribution of people—by age, racialization/ethnicity, gender, and household composition—
across those class divisions. Sociologists also study the consequences of living in poverty,
including poor health and nutrition, housing, and education. Explanations for poverty include
individualistic, cultural, and structural.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 2, students should be able to:
1. Analyse poverty in Canada within a global context.
2. Understand wealth and income inequalities, with particular emphasis on understanding the
situations of the lower classes in Canada.
3. Describe the situation of poverty in Canada, and be able to differentiate between relative and
absolute poverty.
4. Discuss the consequences of poverty for people in Canada with regard to health, nutrition
and housing.
5. Critically analyse how Canada deals with poverty.
6. Explain the system of social welfare in Canada and demonstrate how neoliberal policies have
impacted the Canadian welfare state since the 1970s.
7. State the individual, cultural, and structural explanations of poverty, and explain why
sociologists prefer structural explanations.
8. Discuss various ways that poverty can be reduced in Canada including being able to critically
examine proposed poverty reduction strategies.
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KEY TERMS
absolute poverty life chances relative poverty
blaming the victim meritocracy social stratification
cultural capital poverty rate wealth
feminization of poverty power welfare state
income prestige
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. POVERTY IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
A. Canadians view themselves as living in a meritocracy. But do all people in this nations
and other part of the world really have an equal opportunity for success? What kinds of
inequalities exist in the Canadian and worldwide class system today? Sociologists study
inequality and poverty in a class system. A primary characteristic of the class system is
social mobility, the upward or downward movement in the class structure that occurs
during a person’s lifetime and from one generation to another.
B. Comparisons between nations reflect the growing gap between the rich and the poor, both
within and among nations.
C. Disparity in life chances between high-income and low-income nations also is apparent.
1) Today, more than 1.3 billion people live in absolute poverty, which is often life
threatening, as when people suffer from chronic malnutrition or die from hunger-
related diseases.
2) Over 600 million people suffer from chronic malnutrition; 40 million annually die
from hunger-related diseases.
II. ANALYZING INEQUALITY IN CANADA
A. One of this country’s most persistent social problems is that Canada has a high degree of
social stratification. Today, the gap between the rich and the poor in this nation is wider
than it has been for decades. Throughout the world, the wealthiest and poorest people are
living in increasingly separate worlds. The widening gap between rich and poor has a
dramatic impact on everyone’s life chances. As one might predict, affluent people
typically have better life chances than the less affluent.
B. Most contemporary research on class is influenced by the theories of Karl Marx and Max
Weber, and more recently by modifications to these theories by sociologists like Erik
Olin Wright.
1) Marx’s means of production model: capitalist societies are divided into two
classes—the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) that owns the means of production and
the working-class (proletariat) that sells its labour power to the capitalists.
According to Marx, inequality and poverty inevitably result from the exploitation
of the workers.
2) Weber’s multidimensional model: economic factors are important in determining
class location and studying social inequality, but other factors also are important.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
KEY TERMS
absolute poverty life chances relative poverty
blaming the victim meritocracy social stratification
cultural capital poverty rate wealth
feminization of poverty power welfare state
income prestige
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. POVERTY IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
A. Canadians view themselves as living in a meritocracy. But do all people in this nations
and other part of the world really have an equal opportunity for success? What kinds of
inequalities exist in the Canadian and worldwide class system today? Sociologists study
inequality and poverty in a class system. A primary characteristic of the class system is
social mobility, the upward or downward movement in the class structure that occurs
during a person’s lifetime and from one generation to another.
B. Comparisons between nations reflect the growing gap between the rich and the poor, both
within and among nations.
C. Disparity in life chances between high-income and low-income nations also is apparent.
1) Today, more than 1.3 billion people live in absolute poverty, which is often life
threatening, as when people suffer from chronic malnutrition or die from hunger-
related diseases.
2) Over 600 million people suffer from chronic malnutrition; 40 million annually die
from hunger-related diseases.
II. ANALYZING INEQUALITY IN CANADA
A. One of this country’s most persistent social problems is that Canada has a high degree of
social stratification. Today, the gap between the rich and the poor in this nation is wider
than it has been for decades. Throughout the world, the wealthiest and poorest people are
living in increasingly separate worlds. The widening gap between rich and poor has a
dramatic impact on everyone’s life chances. As one might predict, affluent people
typically have better life chances than the less affluent.
B. Most contemporary research on class is influenced by the theories of Karl Marx and Max
Weber, and more recently by modifications to these theories by sociologists like Erik
Olin Wright.
1) Marx’s means of production model: capitalist societies are divided into two
classes—the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) that owns the means of production and
the working-class (proletariat) that sells its labour power to the capitalists.
According to Marx, inequality and poverty inevitably result from the exploitation
of the workers.
2) Weber’s multidimensional model: economic factors are important in determining
class location and studying social inequality, but other factors also are important.
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Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
The model focuses on the interplay of wealth, power, and prestige as
determinants of people’s class position.
3) Wright modified Marx’s and Weber’s models so that placement in the class
structure is based on four criteria (1) ownership of the means of production
(capitalist class); (2) employing others (managerial class); (3) supervising others
on the job (small business class); and (4) being employed by someone else
(working class).
C. Wealth and Income Inequality
1) The richest Canadian in 2009, Kenneth J. Thomson, has a net worth of $13 billion
(USD) or approximately $15 billion dollars, Canadian. The vast majority of
Canadians will never amass even a fraction of this type of wealth, however even
billionaires lose money – in 2009 the average net worth of billionaires worldwide
was down 23%.
2) The face of poverty is increasingly diverse with regard to family type, as more
Canadians experience layoffs, lack of real wage gains, and reduced work hours.
3) Wealth is a particularly important indicator of individual and family access to life
chances.
4) Income is extremely unevenly divided in Canada. The gap between the richest
and poorest Canadian households continues to widen. In 2003, the highest quintile
had 46.5% of all the income while the lowest quintile had 4.3%.
D. The Canadian Lower Classes
1) The lower class in Canada makes up about 20% of the population. It is comprised
of the working poor and the chronically poor.
2) The working poor comprise those who work full-time in positions such as
unskilled labour, seasonal or migrant agricultural jobs, or the lowest-paid service
sector jobs, but still remain at the edge of poverty.
3) Although the poor constitute between 11 and 16 percent of the Canadian
population, depending on the measures used, they receive only about 5 percent of
the overall Canadian income.
4) Minimum wages in Canada do not function to keep Canadians out of poverty any
more, even if people work full time, full year.
5) Overrepresented in these lower classes are people who are unable to work because
of age or disability and lone-parent female head of households, along with their
dependent children.
III. POVERTY IN CANADA
A. The fact that Canada is such a wealthy nation, but one in which such a high proportion of
the population lives in low income and poverty situations, has made Canada the target of
international criticism, particularly by the United Nations.
B. There are between 150,000 and 300,000 homeless people living in Canada, including the
new poor, families, women, new Canadians, children and students.
C. People living in poverty face two critical issues –housing insecurity and food insecurity.
There is a dearth of affordable housing in Canada. People must often chose between a
roof over their heads or food in their bellies. Further, being employed does not prevent
people from needing to access food banks: in 2008, 14.5% of people who accessed
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
The model focuses on the interplay of wealth, power, and prestige as
determinants of people’s class position.
3) Wright modified Marx’s and Weber’s models so that placement in the class
structure is based on four criteria (1) ownership of the means of production
(capitalist class); (2) employing others (managerial class); (3) supervising others
on the job (small business class); and (4) being employed by someone else
(working class).
C. Wealth and Income Inequality
1) The richest Canadian in 2009, Kenneth J. Thomson, has a net worth of $13 billion
(USD) or approximately $15 billion dollars, Canadian. The vast majority of
Canadians will never amass even a fraction of this type of wealth, however even
billionaires lose money – in 2009 the average net worth of billionaires worldwide
was down 23%.
2) The face of poverty is increasingly diverse with regard to family type, as more
Canadians experience layoffs, lack of real wage gains, and reduced work hours.
3) Wealth is a particularly important indicator of individual and family access to life
chances.
4) Income is extremely unevenly divided in Canada. The gap between the richest
and poorest Canadian households continues to widen. In 2003, the highest quintile
had 46.5% of all the income while the lowest quintile had 4.3%.
D. The Canadian Lower Classes
1) The lower class in Canada makes up about 20% of the population. It is comprised
of the working poor and the chronically poor.
2) The working poor comprise those who work full-time in positions such as
unskilled labour, seasonal or migrant agricultural jobs, or the lowest-paid service
sector jobs, but still remain at the edge of poverty.
3) Although the poor constitute between 11 and 16 percent of the Canadian
population, depending on the measures used, they receive only about 5 percent of
the overall Canadian income.
4) Minimum wages in Canada do not function to keep Canadians out of poverty any
more, even if people work full time, full year.
5) Overrepresented in these lower classes are people who are unable to work because
of age or disability and lone-parent female head of households, along with their
dependent children.
III. POVERTY IN CANADA
A. The fact that Canada is such a wealthy nation, but one in which such a high proportion of
the population lives in low income and poverty situations, has made Canada the target of
international criticism, particularly by the United Nations.
B. There are between 150,000 and 300,000 homeless people living in Canada, including the
new poor, families, women, new Canadians, children and students.
C. People living in poverty face two critical issues –housing insecurity and food insecurity.
There is a dearth of affordable housing in Canada. People must often chose between a
roof over their heads or food in their bellies. Further, being employed does not prevent
people from needing to access food banks: in 2008, 14.5% of people who accessed
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
increasing numbers of Canadian food banks were employed. Food banks feed an average
of 700,000 Canadians, approximately 40% of whom are children, each month.
D. While the past decade demonstrated strong economic growth (prior to the recent
recession), governments continued to make severe cuts to social programs.
E. Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty and relative poverty. Canada has a
high poverty rate compared with other advanced industrial nations. The number of
families who live below the unofficial poverty (LICO) line in Canada increased
throughout the 1980s and 1990s, although since 1996, the numbers have dropped
marginally each year, signifying better overall economic conditions in the late 1990s and
into the 2000s for some groups of people (prior to the most recent recession).
F. The Canadian Poverty Line: LICOs
1) Though there is no established formal “poverty line,” the Canadian government,
through Statistics Canada, has established a low-income cut-off line that is
commonly used to measure poverty in Canada.
2) A Low Income Cut-Off (LICO) line allows us to see how many people in Canada
spend significantly more than the average on the necessities of life, as well as
seeing how low below the cut-off some people live.
3) LICOs are not measures of poverty, although they are typically used as such, as
they do indicate relative circumstances for citizens.
4) The lack of a formal governmental measure of poverty suggests that the Canadian
government does not wish to officially recognize that poverty is a significant and
ongoing issue in Canada.
G. Consequences of Poverty
1) Health and Nutrition
a. Good nutrition, which is essential to good health, depends on the food
purchased, and when people are poor, they are more likely to purchase
cheap but filling foods that may not meet all daily nutritional
requirements. Poor children are especially at risk.
b. Increasing numbers of people annually are relying on food banks to meet
their needs. Approximately 40 percent of food bank users are children.
c. Rural food banks serve more children and seniors than urban food banks
do and rural food banks make up nearly one half of the nation’s food
banks.
d. The nutritional content of food bank hampers is dubious and at best,
provides only five days food. Most food banks only allow once per month
access to a hamper.
e. Nutritional analysis of the food bank hamper contents demonstrates that
donated goods do not meet basic nutritional requirements. Unsurprisingly,
40% of children living in poverty consume significantly less than the
recommended guidelines for caloric and nutritional intake.
2) Housing
a. Many regions of Canada lack affordable housing and has reached crisis
proportions. The problem is even greater for individuals and families
living in poverty because the number of low-cost housing units is
decreasing and being replaced by expensive condominiums through a
process of “gentrification.”
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
increasing numbers of Canadian food banks were employed. Food banks feed an average
of 700,000 Canadians, approximately 40% of whom are children, each month.
D. While the past decade demonstrated strong economic growth (prior to the recent
recession), governments continued to make severe cuts to social programs.
E. Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty and relative poverty. Canada has a
high poverty rate compared with other advanced industrial nations. The number of
families who live below the unofficial poverty (LICO) line in Canada increased
throughout the 1980s and 1990s, although since 1996, the numbers have dropped
marginally each year, signifying better overall economic conditions in the late 1990s and
into the 2000s for some groups of people (prior to the most recent recession).
F. The Canadian Poverty Line: LICOs
1) Though there is no established formal “poverty line,” the Canadian government,
through Statistics Canada, has established a low-income cut-off line that is
commonly used to measure poverty in Canada.
2) A Low Income Cut-Off (LICO) line allows us to see how many people in Canada
spend significantly more than the average on the necessities of life, as well as
seeing how low below the cut-off some people live.
3) LICOs are not measures of poverty, although they are typically used as such, as
they do indicate relative circumstances for citizens.
4) The lack of a formal governmental measure of poverty suggests that the Canadian
government does not wish to officially recognize that poverty is a significant and
ongoing issue in Canada.
G. Consequences of Poverty
1) Health and Nutrition
a. Good nutrition, which is essential to good health, depends on the food
purchased, and when people are poor, they are more likely to purchase
cheap but filling foods that may not meet all daily nutritional
requirements. Poor children are especially at risk.
b. Increasing numbers of people annually are relying on food banks to meet
their needs. Approximately 40 percent of food bank users are children.
c. Rural food banks serve more children and seniors than urban food banks
do and rural food banks make up nearly one half of the nation’s food
banks.
d. The nutritional content of food bank hampers is dubious and at best,
provides only five days food. Most food banks only allow once per month
access to a hamper.
e. Nutritional analysis of the food bank hamper contents demonstrates that
donated goods do not meet basic nutritional requirements. Unsurprisingly,
40% of children living in poverty consume significantly less than the
recommended guidelines for caloric and nutritional intake.
2) Housing
a. Many regions of Canada lack affordable housing and has reached crisis
proportions. The problem is even greater for individuals and families
living in poverty because the number of low-cost housing units is
decreasing and being replaced by expensive condominiums through a
process of “gentrification.”
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
b. When low-income housing is available, it may be located in high-density,
often over-crowded areas. The housing often has inadequate
heating/plumbing facilities, insect and rodent infestation, and dangerous
structural problems due to faulty construction or lack of adequate
maintenance.
c. 24% of Canadians in 2001 and 30% of food bank users in 2001 spent more
than 30% of their gross income on shelter, a situation that puts them at risk
for homelessness.
d. In recent years, increasing rates of homelessness reflect one of the most
devastating effects of poverty. The composition of the homeless
population has shifted to include many more families, young children,
youth, and elderly. At least one-third of de-housed people in Canada today
are families and one-third are youth, aged 16-24. One of every seven
shelter users in Canada is a child.
H. How Canada Deals with Poverty
1) In Canada, as part of an overall retrenchment of government programs and
services, structural poverty is dealt with as though it is an individual problem.
Rather than examine ways of eliminating poverty or dealing with poverty at a
societal level, we offer temporary assistance, not through our governments, but
through charity--both through individual charity and through charitable
organizations.
2) Canada had zero food banks in 1980 and today has thousands – a clear measure of
welfare state retrenchment.
3) Despite overall economic growth in the 1990s, poverty did not decrease on par.
Further, the current recession has significantly and negatively impacted those
most vulnerable. We continue to temporarily fund shelters and food banks as
though the problems associated with poverty in our nation were fleeting. State
welfare programs, such as Employment Insurance (EI) and Social Assistance,
continue to be retrenched, resulting in heightened risks of poverty for income-
insecure individuals.
IV. SOCIAL WELFARE IN CANADA
A. Canada, like many other advanced capitalist nations, is a welfare state. Most benefits of
the Canadian welfare state are taken for granted by most Canadians. Under the mantle of
the welfare state come all our social programs, such as universal health care, education,
pension plans, worker’s compensation, minimum wage, employment standards,
environmental regulations, health and safety standards, social or income assistance, and
child tax benefits, to name a few.
B. The modern welfare state, or Keynesian welfare state, came into existence in Canada
following World War II. One of the unintended, but useful, consequences of the welfare
state has been to ameliorate the worst contradictions created by capitalism’s normal “ebb
and flow” cycle.
C. In the early 1970s, capitalism shifted from a national to an international economic
system; in short, capitalism became global. Capitalist enterprises were no longer reliant
on the purchasing power of any particular nation-state when a whole world was now the
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
b. When low-income housing is available, it may be located in high-density,
often over-crowded areas. The housing often has inadequate
heating/plumbing facilities, insect and rodent infestation, and dangerous
structural problems due to faulty construction or lack of adequate
maintenance.
c. 24% of Canadians in 2001 and 30% of food bank users in 2001 spent more
than 30% of their gross income on shelter, a situation that puts them at risk
for homelessness.
d. In recent years, increasing rates of homelessness reflect one of the most
devastating effects of poverty. The composition of the homeless
population has shifted to include many more families, young children,
youth, and elderly. At least one-third of de-housed people in Canada today
are families and one-third are youth, aged 16-24. One of every seven
shelter users in Canada is a child.
H. How Canada Deals with Poverty
1) In Canada, as part of an overall retrenchment of government programs and
services, structural poverty is dealt with as though it is an individual problem.
Rather than examine ways of eliminating poverty or dealing with poverty at a
societal level, we offer temporary assistance, not through our governments, but
through charity--both through individual charity and through charitable
organizations.
2) Canada had zero food banks in 1980 and today has thousands – a clear measure of
welfare state retrenchment.
3) Despite overall economic growth in the 1990s, poverty did not decrease on par.
Further, the current recession has significantly and negatively impacted those
most vulnerable. We continue to temporarily fund shelters and food banks as
though the problems associated with poverty in our nation were fleeting. State
welfare programs, such as Employment Insurance (EI) and Social Assistance,
continue to be retrenched, resulting in heightened risks of poverty for income-
insecure individuals.
IV. SOCIAL WELFARE IN CANADA
A. Canada, like many other advanced capitalist nations, is a welfare state. Most benefits of
the Canadian welfare state are taken for granted by most Canadians. Under the mantle of
the welfare state come all our social programs, such as universal health care, education,
pension plans, worker’s compensation, minimum wage, employment standards,
environmental regulations, health and safety standards, social or income assistance, and
child tax benefits, to name a few.
B. The modern welfare state, or Keynesian welfare state, came into existence in Canada
following World War II. One of the unintended, but useful, consequences of the welfare
state has been to ameliorate the worst contradictions created by capitalism’s normal “ebb
and flow” cycle.
C. In the early 1970s, capitalism shifted from a national to an international economic
system; in short, capitalism became global. Capitalist enterprises were no longer reliant
on the purchasing power of any particular nation-state when a whole world was now the
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
market. Under various trade agreements, capitalists sought to level or “harmonize” social
and economic policies between nations so as to facilitate easier, and more profitable,
trade.
V. PERSPECTIVES ON POVERTY AND CLASS INEQUALITY
A. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
1) Symbolic interactionists examine poverty from the perspective of meanings,
definitions, and labels. Workfare programs for social assistance recipients are
based on individualistic explanations for poverty. Most sociologists, however, feel
that individual explanations of poverty amount to blaming the victim.
2) Symbolic interactionists are also interested in what it means to people to be poor
and the impact of stigma on people’s self-concepts. Some researchers have
focused on how cultural background affects people’s values and behaviour.
a. According to the much criticized “culture of poverty” thesis, some, but not
all, poor people develop a self-perpetuating system of beliefs and values
(e.g., inability to defer gratification or plan for the future, feelings of
apathy, hostility, and suspicion, and deficient speech/ communication
patterns) that keeps them poor. This thesis has been critiqued as
paternalistic, based on stereotypes, and simply incorrect.
b. More recent cultural explanations of poverty have focused on the lack of
cultural capital: low-income people do not have adequate cultural capital
to function in a competitive global economy. This approach has been
critiqued as victim blaming.
B. The Structural Functionalist Perspective: Structural explanations for poverty focus on the
macrolevel organization of society that an individual alone cannot change.
1) According to functionalists, social inequality serves an important function in
society because it motivates people to work hard to acquire scarce resources, but
changes in the economy have dramatically altered employment opportunities.
2) Functionalists also assert that it is functional to maintain a pool of more desperate
workers in order to fill the occupations that no one wants to do. Though this may
be “functional” for some perhaps, it is likely problematic for those who are forced
to work in unfavourable conditions for low wages.
3) Poverty as an industry may be seen as functional for those who work within it
(e.g. financial assistance workers).
C. The Conflict Perspective
1) Conflict theorists suggest that poverty is a side effect of capitalism. Corporate
downsizing and new technologies have enhanced capitalists’ profits and
contributed to the impoverishment of middle- and low-income workers by
creating a reserve army of unemployed people whom the capitalists use as a
source of cheap labour and a means to keep other workers’ wages low.
2) Corporations’ (shareholders) intense quest for profit results in low wages for
workers, a wide disparity in the life chances of affluent people and poor people,
and the unemployment and impoverishment of many people. Conflict between the
capitalists and the workers has, in part, been ameliorated in past decades by
welfare state programs like EI or social assistance.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
market. Under various trade agreements, capitalists sought to level or “harmonize” social
and economic policies between nations so as to facilitate easier, and more profitable,
trade.
V. PERSPECTIVES ON POVERTY AND CLASS INEQUALITY
A. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
1) Symbolic interactionists examine poverty from the perspective of meanings,
definitions, and labels. Workfare programs for social assistance recipients are
based on individualistic explanations for poverty. Most sociologists, however, feel
that individual explanations of poverty amount to blaming the victim.
2) Symbolic interactionists are also interested in what it means to people to be poor
and the impact of stigma on people’s self-concepts. Some researchers have
focused on how cultural background affects people’s values and behaviour.
a. According to the much criticized “culture of poverty” thesis, some, but not
all, poor people develop a self-perpetuating system of beliefs and values
(e.g., inability to defer gratification or plan for the future, feelings of
apathy, hostility, and suspicion, and deficient speech/ communication
patterns) that keeps them poor. This thesis has been critiqued as
paternalistic, based on stereotypes, and simply incorrect.
b. More recent cultural explanations of poverty have focused on the lack of
cultural capital: low-income people do not have adequate cultural capital
to function in a competitive global economy. This approach has been
critiqued as victim blaming.
B. The Structural Functionalist Perspective: Structural explanations for poverty focus on the
macrolevel organization of society that an individual alone cannot change.
1) According to functionalists, social inequality serves an important function in
society because it motivates people to work hard to acquire scarce resources, but
changes in the economy have dramatically altered employment opportunities.
2) Functionalists also assert that it is functional to maintain a pool of more desperate
workers in order to fill the occupations that no one wants to do. Though this may
be “functional” for some perhaps, it is likely problematic for those who are forced
to work in unfavourable conditions for low wages.
3) Poverty as an industry may be seen as functional for those who work within it
(e.g. financial assistance workers).
C. The Conflict Perspective
1) Conflict theorists suggest that poverty is a side effect of capitalism. Corporate
downsizing and new technologies have enhanced capitalists’ profits and
contributed to the impoverishment of middle- and low-income workers by
creating a reserve army of unemployed people whom the capitalists use as a
source of cheap labour and a means to keep other workers’ wages low.
2) Corporations’ (shareholders) intense quest for profit results in low wages for
workers, a wide disparity in the life chances of affluent people and poor people,
and the unemployment and impoverishment of many people. Conflict between the
capitalists and the workers has, in part, been ameliorated in past decades by
welfare state programs like EI or social assistance.
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Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Many feminist perspectives on poverty or class inequality focus on the gendered
character of stratification and poverty. Most of the people living in poverty are
women and children. This is known as the “feminization of poverty.”
2) In the foundational work for socialist feminism, Engels theorized that the fact of
private property was at the heart of patriarchy. Where private property is important
(in capitalism), ensuring “legitimate” offspring to inherit this property is vital. In
order to ensure a man’s children were his own, monogamy and the subjugation of
women became necessary. For Engels, this was “the world-historical defeat of
women.” Some critique this analysis for being too deterministic.
3) More recently, instead of seeing women and men as oppositional classes, scholars
have analyzed the variety of ways that gender, racialization, and class intersect
within a capitalist economic system, recognizing the complexities in an analysis
of who is poor and who is wealthy, who is an oppressor and who is oppressed.
VI. HOW CAN POVERTY BE REDUCED?
1) Analysts who focus on individual causes for poverty typically suggest that low-
income and poverty-level people should change their attitudes, beliefs, and work
habits if they want to get out of poverty.
2) People who believe poverty is culturally based suggest that poverty can be
reduced by enhancing people’s cultural capital (e.g., we should develop more job
training and school enrichment programs to enhance people’s cultural capital and
counteract negative familial and neighbourhood influences).
3) Although some structural solutions suggest that poverty can be eliminated only if
capitalism is abolished and a new means of distributing valued goods and services
is established, others state that poverty can be reduced by the creation of a society
where wealth is distributed more equitably.
4) In a recent (2008) poll, 90% of Canadians felt that Canada needs strong political
leadership to reduce poverty and that Canada needs a proper poverty reduction
plan now.
5) Poverty reduction plans that have been successful in jurisdictions outside Canada
have included the following characteristics: targets and timelimes; accountability;
comprehensiveness; a focus on marginalized groups; and community
involvement.
ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH
PROBLEMS RELATED TO POVERTY
Focus on Community Action
Have a class discussion on the geography of public and private space in the student’s
community. How are homeless people and people living in poverty affected by the division of
private and public space?
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
D. Feminist Perspectives
1) Many feminist perspectives on poverty or class inequality focus on the gendered
character of stratification and poverty. Most of the people living in poverty are
women and children. This is known as the “feminization of poverty.”
2) In the foundational work for socialist feminism, Engels theorized that the fact of
private property was at the heart of patriarchy. Where private property is important
(in capitalism), ensuring “legitimate” offspring to inherit this property is vital. In
order to ensure a man’s children were his own, monogamy and the subjugation of
women became necessary. For Engels, this was “the world-historical defeat of
women.” Some critique this analysis for being too deterministic.
3) More recently, instead of seeing women and men as oppositional classes, scholars
have analyzed the variety of ways that gender, racialization, and class intersect
within a capitalist economic system, recognizing the complexities in an analysis
of who is poor and who is wealthy, who is an oppressor and who is oppressed.
VI. HOW CAN POVERTY BE REDUCED?
1) Analysts who focus on individual causes for poverty typically suggest that low-
income and poverty-level people should change their attitudes, beliefs, and work
habits if they want to get out of poverty.
2) People who believe poverty is culturally based suggest that poverty can be
reduced by enhancing people’s cultural capital (e.g., we should develop more job
training and school enrichment programs to enhance people’s cultural capital and
counteract negative familial and neighbourhood influences).
3) Although some structural solutions suggest that poverty can be eliminated only if
capitalism is abolished and a new means of distributing valued goods and services
is established, others state that poverty can be reduced by the creation of a society
where wealth is distributed more equitably.
4) In a recent (2008) poll, 90% of Canadians felt that Canada needs strong political
leadership to reduce poverty and that Canada needs a proper poverty reduction
plan now.
5) Poverty reduction plans that have been successful in jurisdictions outside Canada
have included the following characteristics: targets and timelimes; accountability;
comprehensiveness; a focus on marginalized groups; and community
involvement.
ACCESSING THE REAL WORLD: ACTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH
PROBLEMS RELATED TO POVERTY
Focus on Community Action
Have a class discussion on the geography of public and private space in the student’s
community. How are homeless people and people living in poverty affected by the division of
private and public space?
Loading page 27...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Next, have the students design a short questionnaire pertaining to attitudes and beliefs about
poverty and public versus private space. Suggest that they investigate popular stereotypes about
poverty, welfare, and welfare recipients. Students should administer the survey to other students,
co-workers, or acquaintances and compile their results. After that have students go out and
speak with someone who is actually homeless or living in absolute poverty. Have the students
find out the person’s life story and how the division of public and private space affects her or his
life.
Ask students to prepare a report and discuss their findings with the rest of the class. How closely
do the answers given by their non-representative sample in the survey they administered
correspond to the facts presented in the text? Were they surprised with the information they
found from talking to de-housed people? Did any of their attitudes or beliefs change as a result
of interviewing people in poverty?
Focus on Theoretical Analysis
Divide the class into four collaborative learning groups (or 8 if the class is very large) and have
members of each group serve as experts on how functionalists, conflict theorists, feminists, or
interactionists explain poverty and how they would go about reducing or eliminating the growing
gap between the rich and the poor in this country. Each group should choose political leaders
(e.g. Stephen Harper, Gordon Campbell) or community organizations (e.g. Women’s Resource
Centres, Churches) that represent the sociological theory they have been assigned.
One person from each group will be elected to participate in a political forum on poverty, role
playing the political leader or community organization that is most closely aligned with their
assigned sociological theory. The rest of the students will be tasked with asking challenging
questions for each political and community leader about how they explain inequality and how it
could be eliminated, making sure to include relevant information from each sociological theory.
Was it possible to get consensus on how the issues of poverty, homelessness and inequality
should be dealt with? Why or why not?
Focus on Media Engagement
Have the class watch at least three different “reality television” shows that depict how wealth,
power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives (Some good examples: Laguna Beach, Jon
and Kate Plus 8, COPS, To Serve and Protect, What Not To Wear, Clean Sweep, Pimp My Ride,
The Swan, Survival of the Richest, Brat Camp, The Simple Life, The Hills, The Rich Girls). If
students do not have access to cable television, they can use a website such as www.tvshack.net
or www.episodecentral.com to watch streaming video of reality tv.
Students should then prepare a brief report on what they have found, focusing on the visual
images, language used, subliminal messages, intended audience of each program. How do these
supposed “reality television” shows influence our perceptions about poverty? Do they accurately
reflect the reality of how wealth, power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives? Have
each student provide a synopsis for their own real “reality television” show that would more
accurately reflect the daily lives of both people living in poverty and with wealth. They should
share their “reality television” show ideas with the rest of the class.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Next, have the students design a short questionnaire pertaining to attitudes and beliefs about
poverty and public versus private space. Suggest that they investigate popular stereotypes about
poverty, welfare, and welfare recipients. Students should administer the survey to other students,
co-workers, or acquaintances and compile their results. After that have students go out and
speak with someone who is actually homeless or living in absolute poverty. Have the students
find out the person’s life story and how the division of public and private space affects her or his
life.
Ask students to prepare a report and discuss their findings with the rest of the class. How closely
do the answers given by their non-representative sample in the survey they administered
correspond to the facts presented in the text? Were they surprised with the information they
found from talking to de-housed people? Did any of their attitudes or beliefs change as a result
of interviewing people in poverty?
Focus on Theoretical Analysis
Divide the class into four collaborative learning groups (or 8 if the class is very large) and have
members of each group serve as experts on how functionalists, conflict theorists, feminists, or
interactionists explain poverty and how they would go about reducing or eliminating the growing
gap between the rich and the poor in this country. Each group should choose political leaders
(e.g. Stephen Harper, Gordon Campbell) or community organizations (e.g. Women’s Resource
Centres, Churches) that represent the sociological theory they have been assigned.
One person from each group will be elected to participate in a political forum on poverty, role
playing the political leader or community organization that is most closely aligned with their
assigned sociological theory. The rest of the students will be tasked with asking challenging
questions for each political and community leader about how they explain inequality and how it
could be eliminated, making sure to include relevant information from each sociological theory.
Was it possible to get consensus on how the issues of poverty, homelessness and inequality
should be dealt with? Why or why not?
Focus on Media Engagement
Have the class watch at least three different “reality television” shows that depict how wealth,
power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives (Some good examples: Laguna Beach, Jon
and Kate Plus 8, COPS, To Serve and Protect, What Not To Wear, Clean Sweep, Pimp My Ride,
The Swan, Survival of the Richest, Brat Camp, The Simple Life, The Hills, The Rich Girls). If
students do not have access to cable television, they can use a website such as www.tvshack.net
or www.episodecentral.com to watch streaming video of reality tv.
Students should then prepare a brief report on what they have found, focusing on the visual
images, language used, subliminal messages, intended audience of each program. How do these
supposed “reality television” shows influence our perceptions about poverty? Do they accurately
reflect the reality of how wealth, power, prestige, and poverty influence people’s lives? Have
each student provide a synopsis for their own real “reality television” show that would more
accurately reflect the daily lives of both people living in poverty and with wealth. They should
share their “reality television” show ideas with the rest of the class.
Loading page 28...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION
1. Why do Canadians persist in their belief in Canada as a meritocracy? What evidence exists to
support that view and what evidence exists to the contrary?
2. Why are racialization/ethnicity, class, age, and gender important concerns for sociologists
who study social stratification and poverty in Canada and other nations?
3. What suggestions can you make for alleviating the problems associated with the feminization
of poverty in this country?
4. What will happen in Canada if the rich continue to get richer and the poor continue to
become increasingly impoverished?
5. Why does Canada not have a formal measure of poverty? Would having an official measure
change our approach to poverty in Canada? If yes, how?
6. How do individual, cultural, and structural explanations for poverty differ? Which
explanation best fits poverty in Canada? Why?
7. If Canada implemented a poverty reduction strategy such as the one outlined in the chapter,
what impact would that have on poverty? Why do you think Canada has not adopted this or
any other similar strategy?
AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION
A Call to Action—This film follows one activist through one of Toronto’s poorest
neighbourhoods, funding cuts, housing shortages and political activism through OCAP.
2004. 12 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
A Far Cry from the Beach—A Swiss priest brings hope to the inhabitants of a squatter settlement
living in poverty in Sao Paulo. 18 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Capitalism: A Love Story— Examines the impact of corporate dominance on the everyday lives
of Americans (and by default, the rest of the world). 120 mins. 2009. Overture Films and
Paramount Vantage.
Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream—A Canadian man’s road trip into the heart
of the American Dream. 2004. 45 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Neighbourhood Deliveries—A look at poverty in one of Montreal’s most impoverished areas,
Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. 2006. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH DISCUSSION
1. Why do Canadians persist in their belief in Canada as a meritocracy? What evidence exists to
support that view and what evidence exists to the contrary?
2. Why are racialization/ethnicity, class, age, and gender important concerns for sociologists
who study social stratification and poverty in Canada and other nations?
3. What suggestions can you make for alleviating the problems associated with the feminization
of poverty in this country?
4. What will happen in Canada if the rich continue to get richer and the poor continue to
become increasingly impoverished?
5. Why does Canada not have a formal measure of poverty? Would having an official measure
change our approach to poverty in Canada? If yes, how?
6. How do individual, cultural, and structural explanations for poverty differ? Which
explanation best fits poverty in Canada? Why?
7. If Canada implemented a poverty reduction strategy such as the one outlined in the chapter,
what impact would that have on poverty? Why do you think Canada has not adopted this or
any other similar strategy?
AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION
A Call to Action—This film follows one activist through one of Toronto’s poorest
neighbourhoods, funding cuts, housing shortages and political activism through OCAP.
2004. 12 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
A Far Cry from the Beach—A Swiss priest brings hope to the inhabitants of a squatter settlement
living in poverty in Sao Paulo. 18 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Capitalism: A Love Story— Examines the impact of corporate dominance on the everyday lives
of Americans (and by default, the rest of the world). 120 mins. 2009. Overture Films and
Paramount Vantage.
Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream—A Canadian man’s road trip into the heart
of the American Dream. 2004. 45 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Neighbourhood Deliveries—A look at poverty in one of Montreal’s most impoverished areas,
Hochelaga-Maisonneuve. 2006. 52 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Loading page 29...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Salvation—This documentary portrays the front-line street workers who serve the needy under
the umbrella of the Salvation Army. 2001. 51 mins. National Film Board of Canada,
www.nfb.ca.
Them That’s Not—This video puts a human face on the statistics relating to women and poverty.
54 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Turbulences—This film highlights the unprecedented power of the financial markets and the
threat they pose to democracy. 52 min. 1998. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Voices from the Shadows—This film examines Canada’s inequitable, often punitive, welfare
system. 1992. 77 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Winning—This film tracks six Canadian lottery winners to see how their lives have changed, for
better or for worse. 2004. 56 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
CRITICAL READINGS
Beckett,Katherine and Steve Herbert. 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban
America. New York: NY: Oxford University Press.
Crowe, Cathy. 2007. Dying for a Home: Homeless Activists Speak Out. Toronto, ON: Between
the Lines.
Hermer, Joe and Janet Mosher (Eds.). 2002. Disorderly People: Law and the Politics of
Exclusion in Ontario. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
Kazemipur, Abdolmohammad and Shiva S. Halli. 2000. The New Poverty in Canada: Ethnic
Groups and Ghetto Neighbourhoods. Toronto, ON: Thompson Publishing Inc.
Mirchandani, Kiran and Wendy Chan. 2007. Criminalizing Race, Criminalizing Poverty:
Welfare Fraud Enforcement in Canada. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
Naiman, Joanne. 2008. How Societies Work: Class, Power and Change in a Canadian Context
(Fourth Edition). Halifax, NS; Fernwood Publishing.
Olsen, Gregg M. 2002. The Politics of the Welfare State: Canada, Sweden, and the United
States. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Seccombe, Karen. 2007. Families in Poverty. New York, NY: Pearson Education Inc.
Shragge, Eric. 1997. “Workfare: An Overview” in Workfare: Ideology for a New Under-Class.
Eric Shragge (Ed.). Toronto, ON: Garamond Press. Pgs. 17 - 34.
Swanson, Jean. 2001. Poor-Bashing: The Politics of Exclusion. Toronto, ON: Between
the Lines.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
Salvation—This documentary portrays the front-line street workers who serve the needy under
the umbrella of the Salvation Army. 2001. 51 mins. National Film Board of Canada,
www.nfb.ca.
Them That’s Not—This video puts a human face on the statistics relating to women and poverty.
54 min. 1993. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Turbulences—This film highlights the unprecedented power of the financial markets and the
threat they pose to democracy. 52 min. 1998. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Voices from the Shadows—This film examines Canada’s inequitable, often punitive, welfare
system. 1992. 77 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
Winning—This film tracks six Canadian lottery winners to see how their lives have changed, for
better or for worse. 2004. 56 mins. National Film Board of Canada, www.nfb.ca.
CRITICAL READINGS
Beckett,Katherine and Steve Herbert. 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban
America. New York: NY: Oxford University Press.
Crowe, Cathy. 2007. Dying for a Home: Homeless Activists Speak Out. Toronto, ON: Between
the Lines.
Hermer, Joe and Janet Mosher (Eds.). 2002. Disorderly People: Law and the Politics of
Exclusion in Ontario. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
Kazemipur, Abdolmohammad and Shiva S. Halli. 2000. The New Poverty in Canada: Ethnic
Groups and Ghetto Neighbourhoods. Toronto, ON: Thompson Publishing Inc.
Mirchandani, Kiran and Wendy Chan. 2007. Criminalizing Race, Criminalizing Poverty:
Welfare Fraud Enforcement in Canada. Halifax, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
Naiman, Joanne. 2008. How Societies Work: Class, Power and Change in a Canadian Context
(Fourth Edition). Halifax, NS; Fernwood Publishing.
Olsen, Gregg M. 2002. The Politics of the Welfare State: Canada, Sweden, and the United
States. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Seccombe, Karen. 2007. Families in Poverty. New York, NY: Pearson Education Inc.
Shragge, Eric. 1997. “Workfare: An Overview” in Workfare: Ideology for a New Under-Class.
Eric Shragge (Ed.). Toronto, ON: Garamond Press. Pgs. 17 - 34.
Swanson, Jean. 2001. Poor-Bashing: The Politics of Exclusion. Toronto, ON: Between
the Lines.
Loading page 30...
Social Problems in a Diverse Society, 3Ce
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 3
Racism and Ethnic Inequality
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Racialized and ethnic discrimination are among the most divisive social problems facing
Canada. A racialized group is a category of people who have been characterized as a group on
the basis of arbitrarily chosen physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, or eye
shape. By contrast, an ethnic group is a category of people distinguished, by others or
themselves, on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. Racialization and ethnicity
often form the basis of ranking between majority (or dominant) group members, who are
advantaged and have superior resources and rights, and minority (or subordinate) group
members, who are subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group. Prejudice is a set of
negative attitudes toward members of another group simply because they are members of that
group; it is rooted in ethnocentrism, the assumption that one’s own group and way of life are
superior to all others. Negative ethnocentrism is manifested in stereotypes and adversely affects
many people. Some symbolic interactionists emphasize racialized socialization, a process of
social interaction that contains specific messages and practices concerning one’s racialized or
ethnic status. Two functionalist perspectives, assimilation and ethnic pluralism, focus on how
members of subordinate groups become a part of the mainstream. Conflict theorists, on the other
hand, analyze racialized and ethnic inequality from class perspectives in terms of internal
colonialism or racial formation theory. Anti-racist feminists analyze gendered racism, the
interactive and interlocking effect of racism and sexism. Their theorizing differs from many
mainstream feminist theorists, challenging the notion of a common experience that all women
share under capitalism, and it focuses on the specific ways that class, gender, racialization and
ethnicity play out as interconnections.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 3, students should be able to:
1. Define “race,” racialization and ethnicity and explain their social significance, currently and
historically.
2. Explain the sociological use of the terms majority group and minority group and note how
these terms can be misleading.
3. Discuss the concept of internalized dominance and list the many privileges that Whiteness
confers on people in Canada.
4. Explain why stereotyping and generalizing are not the same thing and discuss which one is
more harmful and why.
5. Discuss the differences between prejudice and discrimination and be able to distinguish
between individual and institutional discrimination.
6. Discuss the many forms of racism in Canadian society, including democratic racism.
7. Discuss the differences between racism and anti-Semitism.
Kendall/Nygaard/Thompson
CHAPTER 3
Racism and Ethnic Inequality
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Racialized and ethnic discrimination are among the most divisive social problems facing
Canada. A racialized group is a category of people who have been characterized as a group on
the basis of arbitrarily chosen physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, or eye
shape. By contrast, an ethnic group is a category of people distinguished, by others or
themselves, on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. Racialization and ethnicity
often form the basis of ranking between majority (or dominant) group members, who are
advantaged and have superior resources and rights, and minority (or subordinate) group
members, who are subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group. Prejudice is a set of
negative attitudes toward members of another group simply because they are members of that
group; it is rooted in ethnocentrism, the assumption that one’s own group and way of life are
superior to all others. Negative ethnocentrism is manifested in stereotypes and adversely affects
many people. Some symbolic interactionists emphasize racialized socialization, a process of
social interaction that contains specific messages and practices concerning one’s racialized or
ethnic status. Two functionalist perspectives, assimilation and ethnic pluralism, focus on how
members of subordinate groups become a part of the mainstream. Conflict theorists, on the other
hand, analyze racialized and ethnic inequality from class perspectives in terms of internal
colonialism or racial formation theory. Anti-racist feminists analyze gendered racism, the
interactive and interlocking effect of racism and sexism. Their theorizing differs from many
mainstream feminist theorists, challenging the notion of a common experience that all women
share under capitalism, and it focuses on the specific ways that class, gender, racialization and
ethnicity play out as interconnections.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 3, students should be able to:
1. Define “race,” racialization and ethnicity and explain their social significance, currently and
historically.
2. Explain the sociological use of the terms majority group and minority group and note how
these terms can be misleading.
3. Discuss the concept of internalized dominance and list the many privileges that Whiteness
confers on people in Canada.
4. Explain why stereotyping and generalizing are not the same thing and discuss which one is
more harmful and why.
5. Discuss the differences between prejudice and discrimination and be able to distinguish
between individual and institutional discrimination.
6. Discuss the many forms of racism in Canadian society, including democratic racism.
7. Discuss the differences between racism and anti-Semitism.
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