A Practical Study Of Argument, Audiobook : CD For Computer Solution Manual

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CHAPTER 1
What Is an Argument? (And What Is Not?)
The most important ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Arguments can be given for our beliefs, and the fact that we have opinions and 'have a
right to our opinions' does not preclude giving such arguments.
(2) These arguments can be better or worse and we can reach informed judgments about
what makes them better or worse.
(3) To offer an argument for a claim, C, is to put forward other claims, PI, P2, etc, as
reasons supporting C. (4) The premises are supposed to support the conclusion; the idea
is that one reasons from the premises to the conclusion.
Obstacles frequently encountered in connection with this material are:
(1) General relativism;
(2) Relativism supported by cliches such as "it's all a matter of opinion," "isn't it just a
matter of opinion?", "that's just his opinion," "everyone has a right to his opinion," and so
on;
(3) Relativism supported by the idea that it would be rude to disagree with someone else;
(3) An inability to pick out arguments;
(4) A tendency to reverse the direction in arguments or not understand that there should
be any direction and, thus, to confuse the conclusion with the premises;
(5) A tendency to think that every passage must contain either an argument or an
explanation.
If feasible, one might conduct a general discussion on the opinion/relativism issues. With
regard to argument structure, if students are having trouble with this, one might provide
extra examples and recommend some strategy such as underlining all conclusions in red
and all premises in green. One could really emphasize indicator words and, if providing
extra examples, make sure these contain many of these words.
Exercise 1
1. There is no argument here. The first sentence is a factual statement and the second
offers an informal definition.
2. Answer in text.
3. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that no one can know any
claim with certainty. The other three sentences are premises, put forward to support that
conclusion.
4. Answer in text.
5. This passage does not contain an argument. There is merely a statement that one person
is a better tennis player than another. No support is provided for the claim made.
6. Answer in text.
7. This passage contains an argument. The indicator word "so" precedes the conclusion,
which is that no atheist can demonstrate his loyalty to the state. Note: in identifying this
statement as the conclusion, adapted from John Locke, we are not implying that the
statement is true.
8. This passage does contain an argument. The first part of the sentence is the conclusion,
and the rest, following the word “because” supplies a reason for that conclusion.

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9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
11. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "You also need to keep toxic
radioactive substances from the workers." The support is signaled by the presence of
"Because" at the beginning of the second sentence. Note: The concept of a subargument
is not introduced until the next chapter and there is really no need to bring it in here.
However, if especially perceptive students raise a question about the role of the last
sentence in the passage, it can be explained in this way: The words "You see" at the
beginning of the third sentence also serve as a premise indicator. However, here the
intended support is not for the main conclusion, but for the statement, "The dose [of toxic
radioactive substances] that federal regulations allow workers to get is sufficient to create
a genetic hazard to the whole human species."
12. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers practical advice on what is
needed for long-term business success, but does not provide any premises offering
reasons to back up that advice.
13. Answer in text.
14. There is an argument. The premise is that I shall pass through this world but once;
this premise is expressed in the first sentence and again, in slightly different words, in the
last part of the second sentence in “I shall not pass this way again.” The conclusion is that
any kindness I can do should be done at once, not deferred or neglected.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first parts of the sentence,
“knowledge is happiness.” The premise is expressed in the rest of the sentence.
17. This passage does not contain an argument.
18. Answer in text.
19. This passage does not contain an argument. It consists of a series of questions.
Exercise 2: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first statement. The sentence,
"This point is quite easy to prove," indicates that support for the conclusion is coming,
and the reason is provided in the third sentence.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. Answer in text.
6. This passage contains an argument; two reasons are given for the conclusion, which is
that one should not despair. Why not? First, because it would be unhelpful; second,
because there is not enough time.
7. Answer in text.
8. This passage contains an argument for the conclusion that human beings are not the
only animals that communicate with each other. The premise state that dolphins, whales,
elephants, and even bees communicate with each other.
9. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that the local hospital will
not manage to prevent the spread of disease on its premises. The indicator word "so"
precedes the conclusion. The first two sentences are premises.
10. Answer in text.

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11. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers a favorable description of
Miller's writing style.
12. Answer in text.
13. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is "Licensing nuclear power
plants is licensing murder." The first two statements are premises put forward to support
that conclusion.
14. Answer in text.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that one is not an isolated
individual but rather a member of a larger society. The premise is that one's life, security,
liberty and happiness depend on the cooperation of other people.
17. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "Marketing practices should
not induce mothers who otherwise would be willing and able to breast-feed to switch to
the bottle." The second, third, and fourth sentences are the premises.
18. Answer in text.
19. Answer in text.
Exercise 2: Part B
This exercise requires student answers with regard to the contexts of explanation and
argument.

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CHAPTER 2
Pinning Down Argument Structure
In this chapter, many diagrams have been included, since they are often helpful in
providing a sense of the flow in argument - the fact that one is supposed to move from the
premises to the conclusion. Students are not asked to draw these diagrams in exercises,
because many passages contain subtle ambiguities and diagramming can raise
controversies and difficulties that might pose discouraging obstacles at this stage.
The fundamental ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Before evaluating an argument, we have to understand it.
(2) Standardizing arguments, representing their premises and conclusions in clear
language and structured order, is fundamentally important for understanding them.
(4) Discourse that includes argument may also include material that is not part of the
argument.
(3) Arguments may contain subarguments.
(4) Arguments may contain unstated premises and conclusions.
(5) Visual images may be accompanied by arguments (especially in a format that
includes words, such as the cartoon), but a picture by itself does not constitute an
argument.
Difficulties may include:
(1) A tendency to push ahead and make evaluational comments without restricting
oneself to the task of identifying and stating the premises and conclusion;
(2) A tendency to add missing premises liberally and shift from understanding an
argument to creating a different argument, fixing the original thing up so as to suit one’s
own tastes. Students should be reminded that charity does not extend this far, and that
they are asked to understand and represent an argument presented to them and not, at this
point, asked to replace the presented argument with one they have invented;
(3) A tendency to add missing conclusions liberally and turn everything into an
argument, even when the original context and wording provide no good reason for doing
so;
(4) Impatience with the fussiness of standardization;
(5) Difficulty in understanding the nature of, and details of, rhetorical flourishes -
particularly for those for whom English is a second language. Conclusions may be
expressed in rhetorical questions, commands, or even exclamations when these, in
context, can be interpreted as making statements.
Suggestions for livening up this material:
(1) Have students bring material from a newspaper or magazine, or another course they
are taking;
(2) Have students bring cartoons or ads with visual material and discuss whether, and
why, it might be reasonable to read in conclusions or premises.
(3) Do role plays to appreciate the pragmatic significance between scope qualification
and hedging with regard to degrees of certainty.

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Chapter 2, Exercise 1
1. Answer in text.
2. This passage does not contain an argument. It begins with a comment that everyone
knows the U.S. is having an election (in 2008); the author proceeds to state three things
that he thinks Europe should focus on. He does not offer reasons for his statement that
these three things are jobs, Muslims, and neighbors.
3. Answer in text.
4. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is in the last sentence and is
indicated by the word “therefore.” The other three sentences are premises.
5. Answer in text.
6. This passage does not contain an argument. It amounts to an expression of thanks
publicly stated by the Spirit of Sport Foundation.
7. This passage contains both an argument and a subargument.
(1) The butler was passionately in love with the victim.
Thus,
(2) It was not the butler who committed the murder.
(3) Either the butler committed the murder or the judge committed the murder.
Therefore,
(4)The judge committed the murder.
The subargument goes from (1) to (2), and the main argument goes from (2) and (3) to
(4). Note again: identifying the structure does not imply saying that this is a good
argument.
8. Answer in text.
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
11. Hard example. Reassure students if they have difficulty. It is fairly easy to see that
this passage does state an argument. The conclusion is that terrorism puts civil society in
a difficult bind. The difficulty of the passage results from the fact that the premises are
slightly difficult to extract. They are (1) ‘Since the modern terrorist cannot be
deterred…, civil society’s war on terror must at times resort to invasions of privacy
and…’ <interpreted as statement of explanation which is a premise in an argument, and
not an argument in its own right> ; (2) invasions of privacy and uses of preemptive and
excessive force cause intimidation and undermine trust; and (3) terrorism also causes
intimidation and undermines trust.
12. This passage contains an argument.
(1) We are not under an obligation to give aid unless it is likely to be effective in
reducing starvation or malnutrition.
Therefore,
(2) We are not under an obligation to give aid to countries that make no effort to
reduce the rate of population growth that will lead to catastrophe.
13. Answer in text.
14. This passage contains an argument.
(1) The individual who robs a bank gets a lot of money.

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(2) The individual who robs a bank benefits society by putting large amounts of cash back
into circulation.
(3) Bank robberies stimulate the economy.
(4) Small businessmen prosper as a result of bank robberies.
(5) People can read about bank robberies with great interest.
(6) The police have a chance to exercise their skills when bank robberies are committed.
So,
(7) Bank robberies are good for all.
Thus,
(8) Of the varied forms of crime, bank robbery is the most satisfactory to both the
individual and society.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage contains an argument. Standardization:
(1) No one who uses a relatively unreliable procedure in order to decide whether to
punish can know whether that other person deserves punishment.
(2) No one who cannot know whether another person deserves punishment has a right to
punish that person.
Therefore,
(3) No one who uses a relatively unreliable procedure in order to decide whether to
punish another person has a right to punish that person.
17. This passage does not contain an argument; it offers observations on the role of
observations in obtaining a good diagnosis.
Chapter 2, Exercise 2
1. Standardization:
(1) English is the language of world business and world scholarship.
(2) English is the most important language a person can learn to speak and write
fluently.
Therefore
(3) There is no point in getting your first elementary education in some other language if
your native language is English.
Convergent support pattern. Emphasize to students that identifying this argument does
not mean that one agrees with the conclusion.
2. Answer in text.
3. Standardization:
(1) Virtue is something that is valued because of the kinds of comparisons we
make between people.
Therefore,
(2) If all people shared good qualities equally, there would be no such thing as virtue.

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There is one premise and one conclusion. The support pattern is, by default,
linear.
4. Answer in text.
5. Standardization:
(1) Scientific theories and calculations based on the hypothesis that electrons exist
explain many things that happen in our world.
Therefore
(2) Electrons must exist.
Since there is one premise and one conclusion, the support pattern is, by default,
linear.
6. Here the argument contains a subargument:
(1) Language is necessary for communication.
(2) Communication is necessary for the advancement of our civilization.
Therefore
(3) Language is necessary for the advancement of our civilization.
(4) Any attempt to censor language will restrict the advancement of our civilization.
Therefore,
(5) The censorship of written materials is always wrong.
In the subargument, (1) and (2) link to support (3). In the main argument (3) and (4) link
to support (5). Again, it might be wise to emphasize that identifying this content and
structure does not mean that we agree with the conclusion of the argument.
7. Answer in text.
8. Standardization:
(1) Stagnation is death.
Therefore,
(2) There can be no life without change.
Note that the conclusion is expressed in a rhetorical question. Support pattern must be
linear, since there is only one premise. Difficult.
9. Standardization:
(1) Descartes influenced Pascal.
(2) Pascal influenced Sartre.
Therefore,
(3) Descartes influenced Sartre.
The support pattern is linked.
10. Answer in text.
11. Answer in text.
Chapter 2, Exercise 3
1. The invited conclusion is that the global climate is getting warmer. The premises are

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(1) if the global climate is getting warmer winters on the Canadian prairie should be less
severe and (2) winters on the Canadian prairie are (by implication) less severe. Note: if
taken as deductive, this argument would commit the fallacy of affirming the consequent;
however that fact does not establish that this isn’t the argument given that, after all,
people do sometimes argue in fallacious ways. One can, in any event, interpret the
argument as an inductive argument of the inference-to-the-best-explanation type.
Particularly sharp students might ask about such things. Note, however, that we are not
yet evaluating arguments; we are only identifying them and seeking to understand their
content and structure.
2. Answer in text.
3. Answer in text.
4. The main conclusion is that mad cow disease is very serious. A premise is (1) mad
cow disease spreads because of a certain form of protein that is not destroyed by
disinfecting efforts, and this premise establishes a subconclusion, (2) that we cannot
control the way mad cow disease spreads. The argument is (1) therefore (2) therefore (3),
in a linear support pattern.
5. Answer in text.
6. Answer in text.
7. The conclusion is that the way to cut the crime rate among youth is to give them some
meaningful activities to do. The premises are the other two statements. They link to
support the conclusion. The missing premise is that if young people are given meaningful
activities to do, they will not be bored.
8. Answer in text.
9. The conclusion is that photographs are not a reliable guide to what reality was like in
the past. The second and third sentences are best understood as illustrative material. The
premises are in the first sentence. They are (1) Photographs can be altered and (2) The
techniques for altering photographs are increasingly sophisticated due to the use of
computers. Alternate interpretation: The illustrative material could be understood as
providing a sub-argument for (1) here.
10. Answer in text.
Chapter 2, Exercise 4
1. Answer in text.
2. There is an unstated conclusion to the effect that you should give the woman you love
glorious jewels. The premise is that glorious jewels like these have delighted beautiful
women for more than a century. (Clearly, this passage copies the style of an
advertisement.)
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. Answer in text.
6. There is an argument. The premise is that group performance in problem solving is
superior to even the individual work of the most expert group members. The conclusion
is that students learn better when they cooperate. There is no unstated conclusion. There
does seem to be an unstated premise to the effect that students learn when they are
working together to achieve a superior result.

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7. Answer in text.
8. Answer in text.
9. The visual materials are described because they help to understand what the
advertisers are trying to establish here. The conclusion is that (5) nuclear processes are
safe and should continue to play an important role in the future of American energy. The
stated premises are (1) that nuclear power does not emit greenhouse cases; (2) that
irradiation of foods eliminates harmful microbes; (3) that nuclear technology helps in
various activities ranging from medicine to space exploration; and (4) that nuclear power
plants help keep the air clean. All these points are stated, not implicit. The visual material
is intended to convey an association between nuclear power and natural health. (Note:
Argumentative appeals to 'the natural' are discussed at the end of Chapter 3.)
10. The conclusion is the first sentence. The premise is the second sentence. The missing
premise is that restricting admission to a golf competition is an example of
discrimination.
11. The conclusion is that women’s ski jumping should be accepted as an event in the
Olympics. This conclusion is not quite stated explicitly; it can be drawn from the
rhetorical question in the second sentence, and from the first sentence. There are three
premises and these are offered in a convergent support pattern. (1) Women’s ski jumping
has been recognized for a long time. (2) There are competitions in women’s ski jumping
in many different countries. (3) There are some pretty expert women ski jumpers who
are thrilling to watch. Note that premises in the standardized argument should be
complete as to information content; thus in (1) we don’t say “this sport”, but rather we fill
in which sport.
Chapter 2, Exercise 5
1. Answer in text.
2. Standardization:
(1) High blood pressure is a real health hazard.
(2) Being overweight is likely to cause high blood pressure (missing premise)
Therefore,
(3) Anyone who is overweight should get to work and reduce.
3. Standardization:
(1) Any busy person is at risk of illnesses caused by stress.
(2) All mothers are busy persons, (missing premise)
So,
(3) All mothers are at risk of illnesses caused by stress.
4. Answer in text.

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5. Standardization:
(1)If people were truly unselfish, they would give as much to worthy charities as they
save for old age.
(2)People do not give as much to worthy charities as they save for their old age. (missing
premise, indicated by the rhetorical question, "do they?" which invites a negative answer)
Therefore,
(3)People are not truly unselfish, (missing conclusion, indicated by the exclamatory
phrase at the end of the passage)
6. Answer in text.
7. Answer in text.
8. Standardization:
(1) We all hope to grow old some day; (2) When we grow old we will need the services
of retailers, manufacturers, politicians, dentists, doctors, nurses, and many other
personnel; (3) These people will provide us with what we need; (4) These people will
help to care for us; (5) Only a few of these people will be our own children; so, (6) The
rest of these people will be other people's children; therefore, (7) We all have a personal
stake in educating other people's children. (5) supports (6) in a subargument. The last
sentence is taken to express (7) in slightly different words. Premises (1), (2), (3), (4), and
(6) link to support (7).
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
11. This passage does not contain an argument. It describes the attitudes and practices of
the Taliban and offers an explanation of their harsh measures against women.
12. Answer in text.
13. The conclusion is implied by the rhetorical question at the end. It is (3) Kelsey would
not likely go out with the speaker. The stated premises are (1) if Kelsey is highly
intelligent she would only go out with highly intelligent guys and (2) the speaker is not a
highly intelligent guy. An unstated premise, which we will call (4), is that Kelsey is
highly intelligent.
14. Answer in text.
15. The stated premise is that Kelsey is a librarian. The stated conclusion is that Kelsey is
highly intelligent. The missing premise is that all librarians are highly intelligent.
16. This passage does not contain an argument. The “since” in the opening sentence is
better interpreted as explanatory; the words “it is hardly surprising that” indicate that this
phenomenon is being explained.

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CHAPTER 3
Looking at Language
Comments:
(1) In my experience students are quite to appreciate the emotive overtones of various
terms. They are urged to note these. The point should be emphasized that the use of
emotionally loaded language is not, in itself, any sort of mistake or rhetorical trick. If a
point has been established, to state it vividly, with some emotive overtones, does not
violate canons of logic or rational communication. Problems come not when emotion is
integrated into description and argument but rather when people seek to avoid the need
for reasons and evidence by stating points in emotionally loaded language. It’s useful to
note the assumptions incorporated into the language one uses. That’s true whether we are
examining an argument or some other type of discourse.
(2) The difference between vagueness and ambiguity may cause trouble. There is a
distinction, though some ambiguous words may also be vague.
(3) The discussion of arguments involving appeals to what is or is alleged to (in some
sense) natural may be of special interest. Such arguments are common in advertisements,
in discussions of medicine and health, and in policy debates. Students might be urged to
find examples and discuss them with reference to the treatment in the text.
(4) Students should be warned that dictionaries are not the final word so far as definitions
are concerned. They are the first word and they can be argued to be flawed if ordinary
language counter-examples can be found. The discussion in the chapter should make that
clear. Philosophical points can rarely if ever be established by appealing to dictionary
definitions.
(5) Some students may have difficulty understanding how to test whether reportive
definitions are too broad or too narrow and even, in some cases, understanding the import
of "broad" and "narrow" in this context. Discussing further examples in class may help.
Chapter 3, Exercise 1, Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. This passage does not contain either euphemism or emotionally charged language.
3. In this passage, "device for poverty amelioration" is a euphemism.
4. Answer in text.
5. There is emotionally loaded language in the terms "thieving despot", "tyrants" and - to
a lesser extent - "amassed".
6. Answer in text.
7. There is negative emotionally charged language in the term "pig of a vehicle" and in
the term "monsters".
8. Answer in text.
9. Interestingly, "pre-tortured" is used here as a positive term, because the ad seeks to
appeal to those who love the "lived-in" (used positively as well) look. In this context
"distressed" and "been to Hell and back" are also used positively. Then there is an
attention-getting shift to more ordinary evaluative standards when the fit is said to be
"pure heaven" (here we have a positive, emotionally charged, term). The word "sanest" is
also emotionally positive.

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10. The expression ‘reinstatement of his previous position with reference to penal
institutions” is a euphemism for going back to jail.
11. There is a considerable amount of negative, emotionally charged language in
"demagogic," "knee-jerk one-sided solidarity," and "pound their fists?" The writer also
uses emotionally charged language to try to evoke sympathy with war veterans who are
"huddled" and desperate miners who are "crashing their helmets on the pavement."
12. Answer in text.
13. The following emotionally charged expressions are employed in this passage: "build
bulwarks" (positive); "rising tide of this numbing junk culture" (negative); "swept away"
(negative); "rapacious materialism, jingoism and win-at-all costs idolatry" (negative);
"gored the hearts" (negative.)
14. The word "retained" is a euphemism for having not passed the grade or, more plainly,
having failed.
Chapter 3, Exercise 1, Part B. Students compose their own material in response to this
exercise.
Chapter 3, Exercise 2, Part A.
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. The expression “grateful for life” is syntactically ambiguous. The headline might
mean that the person is grateful for being mauled, or that she is grateful for having
survived being mauled.
4. The word “engaged” is semantically ambiguous. It could mean that the person was
busy, or could mean that she was engaged to be married, presumably to another person.
5. There are no language problems in this statement.
6. Answer in text.
7. There are no problems of ambiguity or vagueness in this passage.
8. Answer in text.
9. There is syntactic ambiguity in the expression, "scientists are at a loss." Scientists have
lost some of their brains because amoeba ate them? Or scientists are at a loss to explain
(that is, cannot explain) the actions or existence of the brain-eating amoeba?
10.Basically this is a descriptive passage that does not contain an argument based on
either ambiguity or vagueness. One could allege, however, that the expression “same
person” is vague.
11. There are no problems of vagueness or ambiguity in this passage.
12.In this passage the application of the word "murder" is extended. We can say, then,
that the writer is exploiting the possibility of vagueness in seeking to apply this negative
term to cases in which people smoke and the smoke from their cigarettes is (collectively
and over the long term) a causal factor in the death of some persons.
Chapter 3, Exercise 2, Part B
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. Answer in text.
4. This passage contains an argument with an implicit (or missing) conclusion, which is

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that your arguments deserve to be thrown out. It relies on the emotionally negative term
“garbage.” It is flawed but does not commit the fallacy of equivocation.
5. Answer in text.
6. There is no fallacy of equivocation in this passage, which does not contain an
argument; the material is explanatory.
7. Answer in text.
8. Answer in text.
9. In the title the word “working” is used in two senses. One is working in the sense of
having a job or performing a set task (externally imposed, or self-imposed). The other is
working in the sense of “functioning well”. The title does not commit the fallacy of
equivocation, because it does not commit any fallacy. It can’t, because it is not an
argument.
10. In the quoted part of this argument that there is a problem with branch plant
economies, as indicated by the case of Canada, there is an equivocation in applications of
the words "the best". At one point "the best" refers to the best jobs by some
organizational standard and at another point it refers to standard of living. These two
things are by no means the same.
11. There is no fallacy of equivocation in this passage.
Chapter 3, Exercise 3, Part A
1. a. "apartment" and b. "jam" could easily be defined ostensively by pointing to
examples. Also, jam could be tasted, c. "leap" could be ostensively defined by
demonstrating, as well as by pointing to examples; though it might be hard to distinguish
in such a way between leaping and jumping, d. Answer in text. e. The roller blades could
be pointed to, thus ostensively defined, f. Maple syrup could be pointed to, but, even
better, one could provide a taste of the sweet stuff in order to ostensively define "maple
syrup".
2.a. Answer in text.
b. This definition of "health" is too narrow. For example, it ignores the fact that health
may be adversely affected by injury, lack of exercise, or congenital defect, none of which
is, properly speaking, a "disease". Perhaps more importantly, "health" should probably be
defined in terms of positive qualities such as "soundness" or "wholeness", rather than in
terms of the absence of negative qualities.
c. This definition is too narrow. It includes the information that a hawk is a bird of prey
with rounded wings shorter than a falcon's, which is a good start. But a failing is that it
implies that hawks exist only in captivity. The comparison of the hawk's wing size with
that of the falcon and the reference to the use of hawks in falconry are pieces of
information which, though interesting, are extraneous to any definition of the word
"hawk".
d. Answer in text.
e. A common definition that is too broad, since it permits one to say that a person is
wealthy even when he has just barely enough resources to avoid deprivation. Wealth is
understood as an abundance of resources that goes beyond this.
f. is a stipulative definition.
g. This definition can be criticized as circular.

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3.a. This is a persuasive definition of "reform" because it seeks to identify positive
change with one particular policy position.
b.This is a persuasive definition of "pure walking" because it defines that expression in
terms of an allegedly desirable characteristic of a particular brand of shoe.
c. Answer in text.
d.This is a persuasive definition of the expression "real man" attempting to link
masculinity to dress conventions rather than to personality or biological traits.
e. Answer in text.
f. This is a persuasive definition as suggested by “nothing but.” It gives expression to one
individual's conception of mathematics.
g.This is a persuasive definition of "security", as suggested by the presence of the word
“true.” "Security" is defined so strongly that it will require being able to respond to real
and imagined threats of all kinds. And any less stringent account will be rejected as "pure
illusion." On this definition of "security" the financial and personnel requirements for it
would be indefinitely large; hence the definition is rather dangerous.
h. Answer in text.
i. Not a persuasive definition. The author is clearly and openly stipulating a meaning for
the expression "total institution" as indicated by his words, "I shall mean by."
j. There are two moves here that are classificatory moves similar to persuasive definition.
The first is to reject the report by stating that it is nothing but propaganda — and not
specifying any details that would show why the report is inadequate. The second is to
insist that information, to count as genuine, would have to say what is wrong with the
government's policy.
k. Answer in text.
1. There is a persuasive definition where men who have fathered children are said not to
be parents (used in this context as a favorable term) but rather to be casual fornicators (an
unfavorable term).
m. There is a persuasive definition of the pharmaceutical industry as something that
engages in ‘trafficking’. The language used links that industry with others engaged in
illegal and harmful activities (for example, drug traffickers), thus making the idea of
profiting from human disease seem illegal and harmful.
n. There is a persuasive definition in “evolution speeded up.” For those for whom
“evolution” is a favorable term, the genetic modification of foods is linked with
something favorable and something that happens in nature without motivated human
intervention.

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CHAPTER 4
When Is an Argument a Good One?
There is a problem of exposition here; it cannot be avoided given that not every needed
concept can be explained at once. In the light of this problem, it is probably a good idea
to mark any assignments and exams quite leniently at this stage. The ARG conditions are
explained more fully in the rest of the book. This chapter is an overview and an
introduction; thus one has to use the ARG conditions rather intuitively at this point.
Fundamental themes in this chapter:
(1) The definition of a cogent argument in terms of ARG;
(2) The distinction between a cogent argument and one that is sound in the sense of
having true premises that deductively entail the conclusion;
(3) The preliminary explanation of A, R, and G;
(4) The notion that R and G can be satisfied in different ways: deductive validity,
inductive strength, analogy, conductive reasons;
(5) The distinction between A, R and G (in the case of R and G, more likely to be an issue
for some instructors than for students);
(6) The conception of the challenge of argument and how one may fail to meet it;
(7) The notion that the quality of (much) discourse is vastly improved if people meet the
challenge of argument instead of dodging it.
Difficulties that may arise:
(1) Sense that there is insufficient detail and ARG are too vague to be useful (has to be
met with the assurance that there is lots of detail in further chapters);
(2) Failure to apply ARG accurately due to not understanding the argument and in
particular mis-identifying the conclusion (one has to re-visit themes in Chapter 2);
(3) Wanting to evaluate arguments simply according to whether one agrees or disagrees
with the conclusion.
One may wish to have students construct mini-dialogues similar to those in the
chapter, to illustrate cases in which there is, or is not, an appropriate intellectual response
to an argument.
Chapter 4, Exercise 1
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. Answer in text.
4. There is an argument; it has two premises and is deductive in character. The
conclusion follows the word “so.”
5. Answer in text.
6. There is an argument. It is inductive in character.
7. Answer in text.
8. There is an argument. The conclusion follows the word “therefore.” The argument is
deductive in character.
9. Answer in text.
10.There is an argument. It is conductive in character.
11.Answer in text.

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12.Answer in text.
Chapter 4, Exercise 2
1. Premises are all acceptable. You might question (3) but the word “can” qualifies it and
protects it. The premises are all relevant and taken together provide good grounds for the
conclusion, which is also qualified. Passes on all of ARG.
2. Premises are all acceptable; they may be deemed relevant; however they do not
provide adequate grounds. Passes on A, passes on R (although one might dispute that);
fails on G.
3. Premise (1) is disputable and not acceptable just as it stands. It would depend on how
one defines ‘innate ideas.’ Premise (2) is disputable for similar reasons, and is also
flawed by vagueness because it is not clear how an infant would be supposed to ‘know’
an idea. Premise (3) seems highly probable and can be accepted. R and G will pass; this
is a deductively valid argument. A is not all right; R and G pass. Hence the argument is
not cogent.
4. Answer in text.
5. The first three premises may be accepted. The fourth is disputable, as it depends on
norms for the ‘highest knowledge’; what these norms are is unclear, so that premise
needs defense, which it doesn’t get here. The premises are relevant to the conclusion.
However they do not satisfy G, because there could, in principle, be some even ‘higher’
form of knowledge which is precise, rigorous, and abstract. A not satisfied, R satisfied,
G not satisfied. Argument is not cogent.
6. Answer in text.
7. Premise (1) is acceptable due to the leniency indicated by “can be interpreted.” The
inference from (1) to (2) may be permitted; the inference from (2) to (3) fails on G. (3)
needs defense and doesn’t get a successful defense here. (4) makes a sweeping claim with
no defense. So (3) and (4) do not pass on A. R and G are satisfied. It is not a cogent
argument because it fails on A, though passing on R and G.
8. A may be granted since he is talking about his own experience; R may be granted since
his experience of his students is relevant to the work habits of students in general; G is
not satisfied, given that his students are only some of the students at the whole university
and are, presumably, a small sample.
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
11. Answer in text.
12. The premise is that St. Francis could have helped poor people in his time even more if
he had given his fortune directly to them rather than giving it away and then begging for
resources. The conclusion is that the reputation of St. Francis is better than it deserves to
be. The first sentence is background information and sets the context. The premise is a
counterfactual and is questionable and needs support; hence A is not met. R is met. G is
not satisfied because we would need a more full account of what should properly
contribute to the reputation of a saint.
13. Standardization:
(1) Commonly used words do not catch our attention because we are so accustomed to
hearing them that we scarcely notice them.

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Therefore,
(2) Effective writing uses a richly varied vocabulary.
The stated premise is acceptable and relevant, but does not by itself provide adequate
grounds for the conclusion. In the argument as stated, A and R are satisfied, but G is not.
If we add a premise to the effect that effective writing must catch our attention, then R
and G would be satisfied, because the resulting argument would be deductively valid.
However, the added premise would not pass on A, since there are cases in which writing
could be effective without catching one’s attention. (One has to ask here what is the
purpose of the writing.)
14. This passage does not contain an argument.
15. Answer in text.
16. Standardization:
(1) Advertising involves the testimony of interested parties.
So,
(2) Advertising is a dubious means of education.
(3) The patient’s need for information on health will not be met by transforming the
doctor/patient relationship into one like that between McDonald’s and its customers.
Therefore
(4) Doctors should not advertise.
There is a subargument from (1) to (2). This argument passes on ARG; compare
the discussion on testimony in Chapter 5. (3) Needs defence and is not acceptable as it
stands; indeed, this is the core of the issue, so that premise should not go undefended. To
make (3) relevant and adequate grounds for (4) we would need to add a premise to the
effect that advertising would transform the doctor/patient relationship into one like that
between McDonald’s and its customers. As it stands the main argument fails on A. It
passes on R. It fails on G, because there could be further reasons for advertising, in
addition to the goal of providing information.
17. This passage does not contain an argument.
Exercise 3: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. Answer in text.
6. Answer in text.
Exercise 3: Part B
In this exercise, students construct their own responses to arguments in Part A.
Exercise 4 (all parts)
This exercise requires students to construct their own arguments (Part A), show that the
arguments satisfy the ARG conditions (Part B), and ask for and respond to an evaluation
of the arguments (Part C).

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CHAPTER 5
Premises: What to Accept and Why
Comments:
(1) The notion of background knowledge may pose some difficulties. It should be tighter
than just any old thing one happens to believe.
(2) Acceptability is not the same as truth.
(3) Acceptability is not the same as acceptance.
(4) Some students may experience difficulty with the notions of a priori and empirical. If
so, further work should be done, since these notions are quite basic.
(5) Note that the position taken in this chapter is not that all arguments in which there is
an appeal to authority amount to fallacies. However, the criteria for having a cogent
argument on authority (and thus supporting a premise in an argument by a cogent
subargument) are quite strict.
(6) The need to rely on experts and yet at the same time be cautiously skeptical about
their claims makes a good topic for class discussion.
(7) The notion of accepting premises provisionally, 'for the sake of argument,' may need
to be emphasized and explained. It can be useful if students balk at the premise stage and
refuse to discuss other aspects, such as relevance or adequacy of grounds, on the grounds
that the premises are not acceptable or they "disagree."
(8) Because of the changeable nature of material on the Internet, no exercises were
provided to accompany that discussion. It is desirable to have some, and students should
be urged to find and print out materials illustrating the various points made in the text.
Chapter 5, Exercise 1: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. This statement is not true, because an aunt can be an only child who is married to
someone who is the brother of someone else. Since it is not true at all, the statement is not
a priori true.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. This statement is not knowable a priori; it is an empirical issue whether the author
knows of any studies about the long range effects of slavery, and it is also an empirical
issue whether any such studies exist.
6. The statement is a definition and hence knowable a priori.
7. Answer in text.
8. This statement, a claim regarding recent events, is not knowable a priori.
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
11. Answer in text.
12. This statement contains two empirical claims about hiccups. Neither claim can be
known a priori.
13. This statement can be known to be true a priori because its truth depends on how the
expressions "jealousy" and "aggression" are used in ordinary language.
14. Answer in text.
15. Answer in text.

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16. This is a common saying, expressing an evaluative judgment about all jobs that are
worth doing. It is not true a priori.
17. Answer in text.
Chapter 5, Exercise 1: Part B
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. Vague, puzzling. Compare the discussion of vagueness in Chapter 3. On one
interpretation - that we are frequently surprised by what people do - this statement would
be acceptable as common knowledge.
4. Answer in text.
5. If this claim were to be acceptable, it would have to be on the basis of common
knowledge. But it does not count as common knowledge, since we don’t really know
about the reactions of children to clowns painted on the walls.
6. Answer in text.
7. Acceptable as a matter of common ethical belief, derivable from a more general
principle that people have a right to speak their minds.
8. The statement that adult tutoring in sports was welcome is acceptable as a piece of
personal testimony.
9. This statement could be accepted on grounds of common knowledge.
10. In a community with a history and culture stemming largely from Christianity, the
idea that Christmas is supposed to be about giving could be taken as a matter of common
knowledge.
11. The statements that shows are beginning again can reasonably be accepted as
testimony from those who placed the ad. (They are in a position to know, and they
certainly wouldn't benefit from lying about the matter.) The other claims are not
acceptable.
Chapter 5, Exercise 2: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. There is an inconsistency between the second sentence and the third sentence.
6. The first statement is inconsistent with the third statement. The statements imply both
that all human beings eat meat and that some human beings do not eat meat.
7. Answer in text.
8. There is no inconsistency in this passage.
10. Answer in text.
11. Only one claim is made and there is no inconsistency.
12. Answer in text.
13. There is an inconsistency here. The second statement states, as the only reason for the
claim that housework is not valuable, that it is not financially rewarding. But the first
statement says that an activity does not need to be financially rewarding in order to be
valuable.

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14. In this descriptive passage there is no inconsistency.
Chapter 5, Exercise 2: Part B
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. The statement is not refutable by counter-example. It makes a prediction and is stated
in tentative terms, as we see from “may take a great leap forward.” Furthermore, no
universal claim is made.
4. This statement cannot be refuted by counter-example because of its use of the word
"most."
5. Answer in text.
6. This statement cannot be refuted by counter-example because of its use of the word
"typically." If one found a case, or even several cases, in which increases in immigration
did appear to result in higher unemployment, they would still not refute the claim,
because of its use of "typically."
7. Answer in text.
8. This statement is not open to refutation by counter-example, because of the use of
qualifying expressions “can lead” and “is, in some cases, fatal.” If one were to discover
that the allergy has absolutely never been fatal, the claim that it is sometimes fatal would
be falsified, but not by counter-example.
9. Answer in text.
10. The claim is a universal one, and can be refuted by counter-example. It is quite easy
to find examples of textbooks that contain cartoons.
Chapter 5, Exercise 2: Part C
For purposes of clarity, the arguments in this part of the exercise will be standardized.
1. The argument is: (1) Witholding information is just the same as lying; (2) Lying is
wrong in every circumstance; therefore (3) Withholding information is wrong. Premise
(1) can be refuted a priori, given what lying is. Premise (2) can be refuted by counter-
example.
2. This passage contains a subargument. Standardization: (1) Nobody should undertake a
college education without at least some idea of what he or she wants to do and where he
or she wants to go in life. (2) Our world is so full of change that we cannot predict which
fields will provide job openings in the future. Thus, (3) We can't form any reasonable life
plans. Therefore, (4) No one should go to college. The sub-argument has two premises.
(1) can be accepted; it is a universal statement but makes a modest claim in the words
“without at least some idea.” (2) is also acceptable, on the basis of common knowledge.
The problem with the sub-argument lies elsewhere. (1) and (2) do not provide adequate
grounds for (3) because life plans need not be based on job prospects. We do not find in
the sub-argument full reasons to support (3); thus in the argument from (3) to (4), we
would have to ask whether (3) is true for some other reason. In (3) “we” is used in an
implicitly universal way. Claim (3) can be refuted by counter-example and is, therefore,
unacceptable.
3. Answer in text.
4. Standardization: (1) Nuclear energy has a potential to cause environmental damage

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