Class Notes for Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences , 2nd Edition

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|CH A P T ERONE|AnIntroductiontoStatisticsand ResearchDesignNOTETOINSTRUCTORSThischapterisessentialtounderstandingconceptsusedrepeatedlythroughoutthetext.Therefore,instructorsshouldspendextratimeonthismaterialtoensureasmoothtransitiontofuturechapters.Inparticular,emphasizethedifferencesbetween inferentialanddescriptivestatistics,independentanddependentvariables,andthedifferentkindsofvariables(e.g.,nominalvs.interval),allofwhichstudentswillneedtounderstandwhenworkingwiththeexercisesandexamplesinthetext. Thesefounda-tionalconceptsneedtobediscussedandreviewedtogivestudentseveryadvantageinmasteringstatistics.Tobestillustratethemeaningsandappli-cationsoftheseconcepts,useanumberofeverydayexamples.You’llfindthatthediscussionquestionsandclassexercises havebeendesignedtohelpyouinthisprocess.OUTLINEOFRESOURCESI.TheTwoBranchesofStatistics■DiscussionQuestion1-1(p.2)■ClassroomActivity1-1:StatisticalJeopardy(p.2)II.HowtoTransformObservationsintoVariables■DiscussionQuestion1-2(p.5)■ClassroomActivity1-2:AStroopTask(p.5)III.VariablesandResearch■DiscussionQuestion1-3(p.6)■DiscussionQuestion1-4(p.6)IV.IntroductiontoHypothesisTesting■DiscussionQuestion1-5(p.7)■DiscussionQuestion1-6(p.7)■ClassroomActivity1-3:NewspaperExperiment(p.8)■ClassroomActivity1-4:ArticleExamination(p.8)1

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2CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■■ClassroomActivity1-5:IntheMedia(p.8)■AdditionalReading(p.8)■OnlineResource(p.9)V.HandoutsandTransparencyMasters■Handout1-1:NewspaperExperiment(p.10)■Handout1-2:ArticleExamination(p.11)■Handout1-3:IntheMedia(p.12)■TransparencyMaster1-1:StatisticalJeopardyScoreboard(p.13)■TransparencyMaster1-2:StatisticalJeopardy:Answers(p.14)CHAPTERGUIDEI.TheTwoBranchesofStatistics1.Thetwobranchesofstatisticsaredescriptivestatisticsandinferentialstatistics.Descriptivestatisticsorganize,summarize,andcommunicateagroupofnumericalobservations,whereasinferentialstatisticsusesampledatatomakegeneralestimatesaboutthelargerpopulation.2.Whendiscussinginferentialstatistics,wemustdistinguishbetweenasampleandapopulation.Asampleisasetofobservationsdrawnfromapopulationofinterestthatshouldberepresentativeofthatpopulationofinterest.Incontrast,apopulationreferstoallpossibleobservationsaboutwhichwe’dliketoknowsomething.Samplesaremorecommonlyusedbecauseitisgenerallydifficulttoobtaindatafromanentirepopulation.Inotherwords,using datafromapopu-lationoftenwouldtake toomuchtimeandmoney ormightbetoovasttoobtainbasedontheresearchquestion.>DiscussionQuestion1-1Whatisthedifferencebetweenasampleandapopulation?Whydoyouthinkthatusingasampleismorecommonwhenusinginferentialstatistics?Yourstudents’answersshouldinclude:■Apopulationincludesallpossibleobservations,whereassamplesincludesetsofobservationsdrawnfromthepopulationofinterest.■Usingasampleismorecommonwithinferentialstatisticsbecauseofthetimeneededtogatherthedataandtocompletethestudy,thefund-ingconsiderationsofthestudy,andtheusefulnessofthestudyonceitiscompleted.ClassroomActivity1-1StatisticalJeopardyThisactivitywillhelpyourstudentstomasterthebasicstatisticaldefini-tions.Italsomakesgooduseofclassroomresponsesystem(“Clicker”)technologyinyourlecture.(Formoreinformation,visitwww.iclicker.com.)

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN3■Instructions■Justasonthepopulargameshow,theanswerisprovidedtothecontes-tants(students),whomustthenprovidethequestionthat directlycorre-spondstotheanswer.Theirresponsemustbeintheformofaquestion.■Transparencies:Youmaydisplaythegameonanoverheadprojector byphotocopyingthemontoacetate.OryoumayusePowerPointbyscan-ningthemintoyourcomputer.■Howtoplay:Twooptions:Option1:Haveyourstudentspickwhichquestiontheywanttotrytoanswer;or,dependingonthesizeofyourclass,youmayprefertohaveyourstudentsworkinteamsandfortheteamstochoosewhichquestionstoanswer.UseTransparencyMaster1-2onlytoreadoffthe“answers”tothestudentorgroup,anddisplayTransparencyMaster1-1tothestu-dents.Bothtransparenciescanbefound attheendofthischapter.Yourstudentscanrespondwiththeiri>clickerremotesifyouusei>clickerinyourclassroom.Option2:Youcanbeinchargeofassigning“answers”tostudents.Ifkeepingscore,tobefair,assigntheanswersaccordingtoseatingarrange-ments,suchasby row.UseTransparencyMaster1-2bothtodisplaytothestudentsaswellastoreadtheanswerstothestudents.■Onthetransparencymaster,checkoffthecompleteditemsforthestu-dentsasthegameprogresses.■Youcandesignateascorekeeperifyouareplayinginteams;otherwisehavethestudentskeeptrackoftheirscores.

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4CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■STATISTICALJEOPARDY:RESPONSES(QUESTIONS)TOTHEANSWERS(Theseareresponsesthestudentsshouldprovide.)StatisticsBasics100Sample200Population300Descriptive400InferentialVariables100Variable200Continuousvariable300Nominal400IntervalExperimentalDesign100RandomAssignment200Correlational300Within-groupsdesign400Confoundingvariable

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN5■II.HowtoTransformObservationsintoVariables1.Regardlessofwhetherweareusingdescriptiveorinferentialstatis-tics,wewillneedtotransformourdataintovariablesorobserva-tionsofphysical,attitudinal,andbehavioralcharacteristicsthatcantakeondifferentvalues.2.Whenwecreatevariablesfromourdata,theycanbeeitherdiscrete(onlyspecificvaluesandnoothervalues canexistbetweenthesenum-bers)orcontinuous(cantakearangeofvalueswhereaninfinitenum-berofpotentialvaluesexist).a.Discretevariablescantaketwoforms.Nominalvariablesusecat-egoriesornamesfortheirvalues.Ordinalvariablesrefertovaluesthatareranked.b.Continuousvariablescanalsotaketwoforms.Intervalvariablestakenumericalform,andthedistancebetweenpairsofconsecu-tivenumbersisassumedtobeequal.Intervalvariablesdonothaveameaningfulzeropoint.Incontrast,ratiovariablesworkjustlikeintervalvariablesexceptthattheydohaveameaningfulzeropoint.c.Manystatisticalprogamstreatratioandintervalvariablessimilarlyandrefertothembothasscalevariablesorvariablesthatmeetthecriteriaforanintervalorratiovariable.>DiscussionQuestion1-2Whataresomeeverydayexamplesofnominal,ordinal,interval,andratiovariables?Yourstudents’answersmayinclude:■Fornominals:Anygroupofobjectsorpeoplelikelytobestudied,suchasmenandwomen,orvariousphysicalcharacteristicssuchasheight,age,weight,orhaircolor.■Forordinals:Anygroupthathasranking,suchasfromthetallestpersontotheshortestperson.■Forintervals:Agroupofobjectsthatarespacedthesamedistanceapart,suchasorangeslinedupanequaldistancefromeachother,orhalf-stepsinachromaticmusicalscale;andintime-measuredtests,thetimeittakesparticipantstoreacttocertainstimuli.■Forratios:Thescoresofagroupofsprintersortheamountoftimeittakespersonsinagrouptoreacttoarequest.ClassroomActivity1-2AStroopTaskTheresearchonlevelsofprocessing indicatesthatwelearnbetterwhentheinformationwearetryingtoacquirehasmeaningtous.Inordertomakedataanalysismeaningfulandlearnstatistics,haveyourstudentscompletetheStroopexperimentsatthefollowinglink:http://www.snre.umich.edu/eplab/demos/st0/stroopdesc.html.

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6CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■(Note:ThisexperimentrequiresthatyourcomputersarerunningShockwave.)Haveyourstudentscollecttheirindividualtimedataforeachofthethreetasks:word,color,colornotword.Haveyourstudentsnotetheirerrorsforeachofthesemeasures.CollectthedataandenteritintoSPSS(StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences)asagroup.Runthebasicdescriptivestatisticsoneachvari-able.Thisdatasetcanbeusedlaterinthecourseaswell,whendiscussingcorrelatedttestsorrepeated-measuresanalysis.Youcanalsogathergroup-inginformation(e.g.,genderorthosewhoreadmorethan10hoursperweekversusthosewhoreadless)touseforttestsandanalysisofvariance.III.VariablesandResearch1.Levelsarethediscretevaluesorconditionsthatvariablescantakeon.2.Therearethreemaintypesofvariablesusedinresearch.Independentvariablesmusthaveatleasttwolevelsthatweeithermanipulateorobserveinordertodeterminetheeffectsonthedependentvari-able,whichistheoutcomevariablethatwearemeasuringandthatwehypothesizetoberelatedtoorarousedbychangesintheindependentvariable.Agoodmnemonicisthatthedependentvariabledependsontheindependentvariables.Asresearcherswewanttominimizethepresenceofthemonkey-wrenchingconfoundingvariables,whicharevariablesthatsystematicallyvarywiththeindependentvariablessothatwecan-notdeterminewhichvariableisatwork.>DiscussionQuestion1-3Whatwouldbeanexampleofsomeconfoundingvariablesinanexperimentwhoseaimistotesttheeffectivenessofaninvestigationalmedicationtotreat depression?Yourstudents’answersmayinclude:■Forconfoundingvariables:Otherrequiredmedicationsthatthepartici-pantsweretakingatthetimeoftheexperimentandvariationsindietandexerciseamongparticipants.3.Wheneverwemakeobservations,wewanttomakesurethatourinstru-mentsarebothreliable,orconsistent,andvalid,oraccurate;inotherwords,thattheymeasurewhattheyareintendedtomeasure.>DiscussionQuestion1-4Imagineascalethatreads“5.0pounds”eachtimeyouplacea10-poundbagofpotatoesonit.Isthisscalereliable?Isthisscalevalid?Whyorwhynot?Yourstudents’answersshouldinclude:■Thescaleisreliablebecause,eachtime,itconsistentlyweighsthepota-toesatthesameweight,5.0pounds.■Thescaleisnotvalidbecausethepotatoesdonotweighinattheiractualweight.

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN7■IV.IntroductiontoHypothesisTesting1.Inhypothesistesting,wedrawconclusionsabout whetherornotaparticularrelationbetweenvariablesissupportedbytheevidence.2.Beforewecandoanyhypothesistesting,weneedtomakesurethatwehavedevelopedoperationaldefinitionsforourvariables.Inotherwords,we mustspecifyoperationsorproceduresusedtomeasureormanipulateavariable.3.Onewaytotestahypothesisistoperformacorrelationalstudy.Acor-relationisanassociationbetweentwoormorevariables.4.Anexperimentisastudyinwhichparticipantsarerandomlyassignedtoaconditionorlevelofoneormoreindependentvariables.5.Whenconductinganexperiment,wecanuserandomassignmentsothateveryparticipanthasanequalopportunitytobeassignedtoanycondition.Randomassignmentallowsustocontrolforconfoundingvariables.>DiscussionQuestion1-5Whywouldwewanttouserandomassignmentinanexperiment?Whatwouldthisaccomplish?Yourstudents’answersshouldinclude:■Randomassignmentcontrolstheeffectsofbiasesorconfoundsbydis-tributingthemamongeachcondition,orgroup,inastudy.Itcreatesaninitialequalitybetweengroupsandallowsafair,unbiasedtestofthehypothesis.6.Experimentscantaketwoforms:between-groupsorwithin-groupsresearchdesign.Inabetween-groupsdesign,participantsexperienceonlyoneleveloftheindependentvariable.Incontrast,inawithin-groupsdesign,participantsexperiencealllevelsoftheindependentvariable.7.Wecannotuserandomassignmentinalldesigns.Whenparticipantscannotberandomlyassignedtoallconditions,ourdesignmustbecomecorrelational.>DiscussionQuestion1-6Whatwouldbeanexampleofawithin-groupsdesign?Whatwouldbeanexampleofbetween-groupsdesign?Yourstudents’answersmayinclude:■Within-groupsdesign:Adrugstudywheretheparticipants’reactionstoadrugaretestedbeforeandaftertheadministeringofthedrug.■Between-groupsdesign:Twogroupsofparticipantswhereonegroupreceivesthedrugandanothergroupreceives aplacebo.■Within-groupsdesign:Haveparticipantstakesurveysmeasuringtheirattitudestowardpolicebeforeandaftertheyseetwomovies:movieAthatdepictsthepolicepositivelyandmovieBthatdepictthepolicenegatively.

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8CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■■Between-groupsdesign:HavetwodifferentgroupsofparticipantswatcheithermovieAormovieB.ClassroomActivity1-3NewspaperExperimentDesignanexperimenttoexaminehowregularlyreadinganewspaperwouldaffectparticipants’vocabularylevels.Generateandanswersomebasicques-tions.SeeHandout1-1attheendofthischapterforexamplesofquestionstoask.Thisexercisewillreinforcelearningthroughstudents’applicationoftheknowledgegainedfromChapter1.ClassroomActivity1-4ArticleExaminationAsbuddingpsychologyresearchers,studentsmusthaveexposuretothepsychologicalliteratureandgainpracticereading,understanding,andcri-tiquingarticles.Thisexerciseisdesignedtoencouragesuchintellectualdevelopmentandtohelpstudentsintegratetheknowledgegainedfromreadingthischapter.Havestudentsreadthefollowingarticle:Bushman,B.J.(2005).Violenceandsexintelevisionprogramsdonotsellproductsinadvertisements.PsychologicalScience,16,702–708.(Tovieworpurchasethisarticle,goto yourlocallibraryorvisitBlackwellPublishingonlineathttp://www.blackwellpublishing.com.)Briefly,participantswatchtelevisionprogramswitheitherviolenceorsexualcontent,bothviolenceandsexualcontent,ornoviolenceorsexualcontent.Whilewatchingtheprogram,participantswereexposedto12ads.Exposuretoeitherviolenceorsexualcontentinprogrammingnegativelyaffectedparticipants’attitudesandbehaviorfortheproduct.SeeHandout1-2attheendofthischapter.ClassroomActivity1-5IntheMediaNewspapersareagreatresourceforexploringhowresearchisrelayedtothelargerpopulation.Forthisexercise,eitherobtainrecentsciencenewsarticlesoraskstudentstoobtain theminstead.Findnewspaperarticlesonthesamesubjects.Basedonthedescriptionoftheresearchinthesciencejournals,havestudentstrytoidentifydifferentconceptsfromthechapter.SeeHandout1-3attheendofthischapterforquestionstoasktheclass.AdditionalReadingUpton,G.,&Cook,I.(2006).ADictionaryofStatistics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Thisisastraightforward,easy-to-understand,yetcomprehensivedic-tionarythatisalsosuitableforstudents.

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN9■OnlineResourceStatisticsEducationResearchJournalisafreeonlinejournalthatpublishestwiceperyear.Themissionofthejournalistoimprove theteachingandlearningforstatistics.http://iase-web.org/Publications.php?p=SERJ

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10CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■HANDOUT1-1:NEWSPAPEREXPERIMENTDirections:Designanexperimenttoexaminehowreadinganewspaperregularlywouldaffectparticipants’vocabularylevels.1.Whatistheprocedure?Whatistheactualdesignofyourstudy?2.Whatis/aretheindependentvariable(s)?3.Whatisthedependentvariable?4.Whatarepossibleconfoundingvariables?5.Isthisabetween-groupsorwithin-groupsdesign?Howdoyouknow?

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN11■HANDOUT1-2:ARTICLEEXAMINATIONDirections:Readthearticle,Bushman,B.J.(2005).Violenceandsexintelevisionprogramsdonotsellproductsinadvertisements.PsychologicalScience,16,702–708.Answereachoftheques-tionsbelow.1.Summarizetheprocedureandresultsofthestudy.2.Whatis/aretheindependentvariable(s)?3.Whataresomeofthedependentvariablesthatweremeasured?4.Whatconfoundingvariablesdidtheresearcherscontrolfor?5.Isthisabetween-groupsorwithin-groupsdesign?Howdoyouknow?

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12CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■HANDOUT1-3:INTHEMEDIADirections:Usinganewspaperarticle,trytoidentifythefollowingconceptsdescribedinthechap-ter.1.Summarizetheresearchthatwasconductedbytheresearcher(s).Whatdidtheresearcher(s)actuallydo?Whatwerethefindings?2.Whatkindofstudyisthis?3.Canyouidentifyanypotentialconfoundingvariablesinthisparticulardesign?4.Wastheauthorsuccessfulincommunicatingthemainpointsoftheresearchcon-ducted?Howcouldithavebeenimproved?5.Ifpossible,findtheprimarysourceofthisresearch(i.e.,thestudypublishedinascien-tificjournalratherthansummarizedinanewspaper).Doestheprimarysourcematchthemainpointsofthenewspaperarticle?Werethereelementsleftoutofthenewspa-perarticle?Whymightthetwosourcesbedifferent?

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CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN13■TRANSPARENCYMASTER1-1StatisticalJeopardyScoreboardStatisticsBasicsVariablesExperimentalDesign100100100200200200300300300400400400Nolan/Heinzen:StatisticsfortheBehavioralSciences,2e©2014,2011byWorthPublishers

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14CHAPTER1ANINTRODUCTIONTOSTATISTICSANDRESEARCHDESIGN■TRANSPARENCYMASTER1-2StatisticalJeopardy:AnswersStatisticsBasicsVariablesExperimentalDesign100:Asetofsomeobservations100:Anyobservationthatcantakeondifferentvalues100:Everyparticipanthasan equalchancetobeassignedtoanygroup200:Allpossibleobservationsinastudy200:Avariablethatcantakeonafullrangeofvalues(includingdecimals)200:Whenlookingforanasso-ciationbetweentwoormorevariables300:Numbersthatareorga-nizedandthatsummarizeinformation300:Avariablethathascatego-riesbutnorankings300:Avariablethatsystemati-callyvarieswiththeinde-pendentvariable400:Numbers(estimates)thathopefullycanbegeneral-izedbacktothepopula-tion400:Avariablewithequal-distantvaluesbutnotruezero400:Participantexperiencesallthelevelsoftheindepen-dentvariableNolan/Heinzen:StatisticsfortheBehavioralSciences,2e©2014,2011byWorthPublishers

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|C H A P T ERT WO|FrequencyDistributionsNOTETOINSTRUCTORSInthischapter,instructorsshouldemphasizetheimportanceofvisuallyrepresentingdata.Thechapterdescribesthedifferentwaysoforganizingthedataintermsofafrequencydistribution.Thevariousshapesofdistri-butionsarealso presented.Studentsoftenforgettheimportanceofvisuallyrepresentingthedatathattheyworkwith.Asaresult,itwouldbeusefultoshowstudentshowvaluablevisualrepresentationcanbebydemonstratinghowfrequencydistributionscanbeusedtoaidingettingaquick“snapshot”ofdatathatarecollected.OUTLINEOFRESOURCESI.FrequencyDistributions■DiscussionQuestion2-1(p.16)■DiscussionQuestion2-2(p.17)■DiscussionQuestion2-3(p.17)■DiscussionQuestion2-4(p.18)II.ShapesofDistributions■DiscussionQuestion2-5(p.18)■ClassroomActivity2-1:ExploringShapesofDistribution(p.18)■OnlineResources(p.19)■AdditionalReading(p.19)III.Handouts■Handout2-1:ExploringShapesofDistribution(p.20)15

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