Lecture Notes For Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 10th Edition

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Online Instructor’s Manual
for
Criminology Today
An Integrative Introduction
Tenth Edition
Frank Schmalleger
Distinguished Professor Emeritus,
The University of North Carolina at Pembroke
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank prepared by
Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.
LECTURE NOTES

iii
CONTENTS
To the Instructor v
Syllabi vi
Chapter 1: What Is Criminology? Understanding Crime and Criminals 1
Chapter 2: Where Do Theories Come From? From Idea to Evidence 13
Chapter 3: Classical and Neoclassical Thought: Choice or Consequences 22
Chapter 4: Early Biological Perspectives on Criminal Behavior: It’s What We Are 34
Chapter 5: Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives: Interaction is Key 42
Chapter 6: Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of Criminal Behavior 51
Chapter 7: Social Structure Theories: It’s How We Live 65
Chapter 8: Theories of Social Process and Social Development: It’s What We Learn 76
Chapter 9: Social Conflict Theories: It’s How We Relate 89
Chapter 10: Criminal Victimization: It’s Personal 101
Chapter 11: Crimes against Persons: It’s What We Fear 113
Chapter 12: Crimes against Property: It’s What We Lose 126
Chapter 13: White-Collar and Organized Crime: Crime as a Job 136
Chapter 14: Drug and Sex Crimes: Recreational Offenses 148
Chapter 15: Technology and Crime: It’s a Double-Edged Sword 159
Chapter 16: Globalization and Terrorism: Our Small World 169

v
To the Instructor
This Instructor’s Manual (IM) with Test Bank is designed to accompany and complement the
tenth edition of Criminology Today by Frank Schmalleger and to help make your job more
manageable and your teaching more effective. It provides you with a comprehensive summary of
the information in the textbook and serves as an easy-access reference to the issues presented in
the textbook and to complementary materials.
The chapters of the IM correspond directly to those in the textbook. Each chapter contains the
following sections:
Chapter Overview: This section provides a detailed summary of the chapter.
Learning Outcomes: These are the learning outcomes from each chapter and are presented in the
IM for your convenience.
Chapter Outline: This includes an outline of the main topics covered in the chapter, as well as a
list of teaching suggestions for each topic. Suggestions for relevant video material (available
online) that may be show in class or assigned to students for out-of-class viewing is also included.
List of Changes/Transition Guide: This section identifies the main changes that have been
made to the text in each chapter since the seventh edition, making it easy to update lesson plans,
assignments, and other course materials to reflect the new edition.
Additional Assignments and Class Activities: This section includes both additional lecture
topics, which are topics not covered in the textbook, but which closely complement the chapter
material, and which may be used to supplement lectures, and student activities that may be used
in class or assigned to students as outside activities. Many involve the use of the World Wide
Web.
Suggested Answers to End-of-Chapter Assignments: The textbook contains a number of
Questions for Review and Questions for Reflection at the end of each chapter. Although students’
personal opinions may play a role in their answers to these questions, most responses can be
assessed in terms of basic information and common themes found throughout the textbook.
Sample suggested answers to the questions are provided.
In addition, sample syllabi are provided for courses using Criminology Today, tenth edition. Both
10-week and 16-week samples are included.

vi
SYLLABI
Sample Syllabus
Introduction to Criminology
16-Week Course
COURSE INFORMATION
Course Number:
Class Meeting Times:
Class Meeting Location:
INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION
Instructor Name:
Office Location:
Office Hours:
Telephone Number:
E-mail Address:
REQUIRED TEXT
Schmalleger, Frank. 2021. Criminology Today (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course provides an introduction to the field of criminology, providing an overview of the
issues involved in defining, measuring, and explaining crime. Students will learn about the field
of criminology, examine general characteristics of crime and criminals, review early and
contemporary theories which attempt to explain criminal behavior, and discuss crime in the
modern world.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
Examinations: There will be three non-cumulative examinations, including both multiple choice
and true/false questions. Each examination will be worth 100 points and will contain 50 questions
(each question will be worth two points). Examinations will cover materials presented in lectures
and the textbook.
Make-up policy: [Insert here]
Writing Assignments: Each chapter of Criminology Today includes a number of Questions for
Review and Questions for Reflection. You will select one question from each chapter and provide
a detailed written response. Each assignment will be worth 20 points.

vii
Class Participation: Participation in class is worth 50 points. Read and study the textbook before
each class and be prepared to ask and answer questions.
GRADING SCALE
The following grading scale will be used to determine course grades:
GRADE PERCENT POINTS GRADE PERCENT POINTS
A 93-100% C 73-77%
A– 90-92% C– 70-72%
B+ 88-89% D+ 68-69%
B 83-87% D 63-67%
B– 80-82% D– 60-62%
C+ 78-79% F Below 60%
Note to instructors: It is important to clearly describe the method you will use to assign grades
that you describe clearly the method you will use to assign grades. If you use a percentage scale
(as in the table above), be sure to include the minimum and maximum points required for each
grade. If you use a curve to assign examination or final grades, include information on this as
well. If you provide opportunities for extra credit, these should be clearly stated in the syllabus.
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
This section should include university policies on issues such as academic integrity and sexual
harassment as well as your policies on issues such as attendance, make-up examinations, missed
assignments, classroom behavior, and so on.
CLASS SCHEDULE
WEEK TOPIC(S) CHAPTER
ASSIGNMENT
1 What is Criminology?/Where Do Theories Come
From?
Chapters 1-2
2 Classical and Neoclassical Thought Chapter 3
3 Early Biological Perspectives on Criminal Behavior Chapter 4
4 Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives Chapter 5
5 EXAM 1 Covers material in
chapters 1-5
6 Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of
Criminal Behavior
Chapter 6
7 Social Structure Theories Chapter 7
8 Theories of Social Process and Social Development Chapter 8

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ix
Sample Syllabus
Introduction to Criminology
10-Week Course
COURSE INFORMATION
Course Number:
Class Meeting Times:
Class Meeting Location:
INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION
Instructor Name:
Office Location:
Office Hours:
Telephone Number:
E-mail Address:
REQUIRED TEXT
Schmalleger, Frank. 2021. Criminology Today (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course provides an introduction to the field of criminology, providing an overview of the
issues involved in defining, measuring, and explaining crime. Students will learn about the field
of criminology, examine general characteristics of crime and criminals, review early and
contemporary theories which attempt to explain criminal behavior, and discuss crime in the
modern world.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
Examinations: There will be two cumulative examinations, including both multiple choice and
true/false questions. Each examination will be worth 100 points and will contain 50 questions
(each question will be worth two points). Examinations will cover materials presented in lectures
and the textbook.
Make-up policy: [Insert here]
Writing Assignments: Each chapter of Criminology Today includes a number of Questions for
Review and Questions for Reflection. You will select one question from each chapter and provide
a detailed written response. Each assignment will be worth 20 points.
Class Participation: Participation in class is worth 50 points. Read and study the textbook before
each class and be prepared to ask and answer questions.

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x
GRADING SCALE
The following grading scale will be used to determine course grades:
GRADE PERCENT POINTS GRADE PERCENT POINTS
A 93-100% C 73-77%
A– 90-92% C– 70-72%
B+ 88-89% D+ 68-69%
B 83-87% D 63-67%
B– 80-82% D– 60-62%
C+ 78-79% F Below 60%
Note to instructors: It is important to clearly describe the method you will use to assign grades
that you describe clearly the method you will use to assign grades. If you use a percentage scale
(as in the table above), be sure to include the minimum and maximum points required for each
grade. If you use a curve to assign examination or final grades, include information on this as
well. If you provide opportunities for extra credit, these should be clearly stated in the syllabus.
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
This section should include university policies on issues such as academic integrity and sexual
harassment as well as your policies on issues such as attendance, make-up examinations, missed
assignments, classroom behavior, and so on.
COURSE SCHEDULE
WEEK TOPIC(S) CHAPTER
ASSIGNMENT
1 What is Criminology?
Where Do Theories Come From?
Chapters 1-2
2 Classical and Neoclassical Thought
Early Biological Perspectives on Criminal Behavior
Chapters 3-4
3 Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives
Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of Criminal
Behavior
Chapters 5-6
4 Social Structure Theories
Theories of Social Process and Social Development
Chapters 7-8
5 Social Conflict Theories Chapter 9
6 EXAM 1 – covers chapters 1-9
Criminal Victimization Chapters 10
7 Crimes against Persons
Crimes against Property
Chapters 11-12

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1
Chapter 1
What Is Criminology?
Understanding Crime and Criminals
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 introduces the textbook and to the field of criminology. Crime can be defined in a
variety of ways; the four main definitional perspectives see crime from the legalistic, political,
sociological, and psychological viewpoints. The text uses a legalistic approach, which sees crime
as “human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a state, the federal government, or a local
jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws.” This approach does have some limitations,
however, some of which may be addressed by the other perspectives on crime.
Many crimes are forms of deviant behavior, human activity that violates social norms;
however, not all crimes are deviant and not all deviant behavior is criminal. There is also a
significant difference between what is crime and what should be criminal. The consensus
perspective holds that a law should be enacted to criminalize a certain behavior when the
members of a society generally agree that such a law is necessary. However, in a multicultural
society, consensus may be difficult to achieve. The diversity of society is recognized in the
pluralist perspective, which suggests that behaviors typically are criminalized through a political
process after debate over the appropriate course of action.
The field of criminology itself is discussed in detail, with various definitions considered.
While criminology is primarily a social science, it is interdisciplinary. It contributes to, and
overlaps, the field of criminal justice. A criminologist is one who studies crime, criminals, and
criminal behavior; the term applies primarily to academics, researchers, and policy analysts with
advanced degrees who are involved in the study of crime and crime trends and in the analysis of
societal reactions to crime. Criminalists collect and examine physical evidence of crimes, while
criminal justice professionals do the daily work of the criminal justice system. There are many
professional opportunities for individuals with degrees in criminology.
One subfield is theoretical criminology, which posits explanations for criminal behavior.
There are many different theories of crime. General theories attempt to explain all (or most)
forms of criminal conduct through a single overarching approach. An integrated theory does not
necessarily attempt to explain all criminality but merges concepts drawn from different sources.
Evidence-based criminology or knowledge-based criminology involves the use of rigorous
scientific techniques to develop knowledge in the field of criminology. It is focusing on the
creation of a body of scientific evidence that is applicable to modern social problems and
realities.
Criminological theorizing has as its ultimate goal the development of meaningful social
policies based on scientific evidence. Translational criminology involves translating
criminological research results into workable social policy. Translating research into practice is
often difficult, even with solid evidence to support policy innovations. For example, despite
widespread concern among professional groups about the effect of the media on teenage violence,
policymakers have been reluctant to curtail the production of violent media. Essentially there is a
conflict between crime reduction policies and the profit motives of media vendors.
The social policy theme of the text is presented through a contrast of the two main
perspectives popular in today’s society: the social problems perspective and the individual

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2
responsibility perspective. Recently the individual responsibility perspective has had a substantial
influence on national crime control policy.
Crime does not occur in a vacuum; every crime has a unique set of causes, consequences, and
participants. Crime is seen as a social event rather than an isolated individual activity. The
criminal event is the result of the coming together of inputs provided by the offender, the criminal
justice system, the victim, and the general public (society). Background and foreground features
or inputs provided by each contributor are discussed. In addition, each crime has consequences,
or outputs, which affect not only the victim and offender but also society and the criminal justice
system. These consequences may be immediate or more long-term.
The text recognizes the primacy of sociology: the belief that the primary perspective from
which many contemporary criminologists operate is a sociological one. However, not all
criminologists agree with this perspective and new and emerging perspectives are being
developed.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What is crime? What is the definition of crime that the author of this text has chosen to use?
2. What is deviance? How are crime and deviance similar? How do they differ?
3. Who decides what should be criminal? How are such decisions made?
4. What is criminology? What are its many roots?
5. What do criminologists do?
6. What is evidence-based criminology? How does it complement theoretical criminology?
7. How does criminology, and especially criminological research, influence social policy? What
is translational criminology?
8. What is the theme of this chapter? Upon what two contrasting viewpoints does it build?
9. What is the social context of crime? What are crime’s consequences?
10. What social science has traditionally provided a central theoretical basis for criminology?
Why?
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction
• Ask students to write down three ideas they immediately think of when they hear the
term crime. Have them read out their responses and lead a discussion about the diversity
of the responses.
• Many people accept the fictional (or fictionalized) view of crime that is presented by the
media in crime-related entertainment (not only primetime television programs but also
reality programs, news programs, and newspaper content). Explain that the needs of the
media often influence or distort the images and information; the mass media often focus
on unusual circumstances rather than presenting more typical images of crime.
• Ask students if they regularly watch any of today’s numerous crime-related television
shows. Then lead a discussion comparing the reality of crime and criminal justice with
the media representation.
• Ask students whether a random act of violence has recently occurred in their community.
You can also ask about an event they might have heard about recently on the news or

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3
read about on the Web. Ask them to discuss their initial response, and ask whether they
are concerned about possibly becoming a victim of such random violence.
• Lead a class discussion as to why there is so much public interest (as evidenced by all the
crime shows on television) in crime and justice.
II. What Is Crime?
• Crime covers a limited number of wrongs. Explain that, because crime is concerned with
the social control of wrongs, crime is fundamentally an issue of morality.
• Lead a class discussion as to whether crime and wrongdoing are the same.
• Ask students to define the four perspectives on crime that this text discusses and to
identify ways in which each aligns with the democratic principles of our society.
• Explain why the legalistic approach dominates this text as well as most thinking on
issues about crime. Inform students that an emphasis on the legal definition of crime can
limit the development of theory and crime-related policy.
• Point out that there can be no crime unless defined by law. Lead a class discussion as to
whether there can still be harm.
• Divide the class into four groups. Assign each one of the four perspectives on crime as
discussed in the text. Lead a debate in which each group defends their assigned
perspective.
III. Crime and Deviance
• Explain that deviance is a broad area whose boundaries include much crime but also
extend beyond crime and include many legal behaviors as well. One example that may
be used is clothing. Some people say that wearing hoodies or sagging pants are fashion
statements, while others say that wearing such clothing paints the wearer in a negative
light.
• Ask students to create a list of behaviors they consider deviant. Emphasize the
similarities and differences in the student responses. Discuss which of the behaviors are
crimes and which are not.
• Explain that what is considered deviant for one group may not be so for another group.
Identify a social group and discuss how its “normal” behavior may be considered deviant
by another group.
• Explain that “youth” is not the only status that determines the criminality of a behavior.
Review other behaviors that the law has distinguished by status (e.g., outlawing the
ownership of firearms by convicted felons; laws that prohibit members of one gender
from using public bathrooms intended for the other gender).
IV. What Should Be Criminal?
• Ask students to come up with examples that show how the question “What is crime?”
differs from the question “What should be criminal?”
• Point out that not everyone agrees about what is moral or immoral; nor do they agree
about what should be legal or illegal – and laws vary from one place to another. Ask the
class to identify forms of behavior that are illegal in some jurisdictions (or states) but not
in others.
• Compare the consensus and pluralist perspectives and explain how both are consistent
with a democratic system of criminal justice.

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4
• Ask the class to discuss why it is easier for members of our society to reach a consensus
about right and wrong on some behaviors than it is on others.
• Demonstrate the complexity of the consensus and pluralist perspectives on crime by
illustrating that there can be a general social consensus that the act of murder is wrong
but, at the same time, there may be disagreement over the kinds of acts that make one
criminally liable for the killing of a human being. Euthanasia might serve as an example.
• Ask the class if all laws should be enforced all the time. Are there situations in which the
police should focus on the spirit rather than the letter of the law?
V. What Is Criminology?
• Ask students to write down their concept of criminology. Discuss the responses with the
class.
A. Defining “Criminology”
• Discuss Edwin Sutherland’s definition of criminology and compare it to the
definition used by the text.
B. The Interdisciplinary Nature of Criminology
• Compare criminology and criminal justice. Explain how they overlap and how they
differ.
• If criminology as a field of study is so interdisciplinary, why has it been so difficult
for criminologists to successfully develop a fully integrated explanation for diverse
types of criminal behavior?
• If it is relevant, identify members of the faculty who have degrees in fields other than
criminology and/or criminal justice. Consider identifying seminal criminologists
whose doctoral degrees are in other fields.
VI. What Do Criminologists Do?
• Stress the differences among a criminologist, a criminalist, and a criminal justice
professional.
• Consider sharing with the class how you first became interested in criminology. You
may also want to share your current research and writing activities with your students, if
appropriate.
• Ask students about their possible interest in a career in criminology, and ask why they
might want to pursue this occupation. Ask if any are currently working in criminal
justice and what their future career goals might be.
A. Theoretical Criminology
• Explain that theoretical criminology is only one subfield within criminology and that
there are many other areas in which criminologists may specialize.
• Explain the difference between general and integrated theories and discuss why
integrated theories are so challenging to develop.
VII. Evidence-Based Criminology
• Explain that “evidence” does not refer to the evidence used in criminal investigations.
• Discuss what it means to say that criminology is built on a social scientific approach.
VIII. Criminology and Evidence-Based Social Policy
• Discuss why it is often difficult to translate research into policy and emphasize that
effective crime-control policies must be directly linked to explanations of crime.

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5
• Discuss the ways in which crime and crime control have become increasingly politicized.
• Ask students to discuss how violence in the media might influence actual occurrences of
violence.
• Ask students to discuss why it is often so difficult to persuade policy makers to link
policy to research findings. Have them consider what criminologists might do to help
ensure policy makers consider criminological research findings when developing sound
social policies.
• Have students discuss why reactions to crime are important and why it might be
important to change how people think about the criminal justice system or the crime
problem.
• Go to YouTube and watch the video, “Translational Criminology: A Message From The
Director”
• Watch the video, “How Researcher-Practitioner Partnerships Are Redefining How We
Study Crime” on YouTube. This video includes the introductory remarks by John Laub
at the opening plenary of the 2012 National Institute of Justice Conference.
IX. The Theme of This Text
• Discuss the assumptions inherent in each of the two perspectives on crime. Emphasize
that these perspectives are not necessarily contrasting or mutually exclusive.
• Discuss the ways in which a public-health approach to crime is more closely aligned
with crime prevent rather than crime fighting.
• Lead a class discussion as to whether crime is primarily a public-health issue or a
criminal justice issue.
• Ask students to discuss whether a responsible society has the right to punish individuals
who violate the law if that society allows the existence of social problems that may
contribute to crime.
• Ask students to write about which perspective they prefer and to provide reasons to
support their choice. Discuss their responses in class.
A. Individual Responsibility and the Law
X. The Social Context of Crime
A. Making Sense of Crime: The Causes and Consequences of the Criminal Event
• Ask students to write about which perspective they prefer and to provide reasons to
support their choice. Discuss their responses in class.
• Discuss what the author of the textbook means by saying that “criminal activity is
diversely created and variously interpreted.”
• Ask students to discuss how the concept of social relativity fits with the two
perspectives that guide this textbook.
B. Crime and the Offender
• Discuss the various background and foreground contributions made by offenders and
how these may affect our interpretation of the crime event.
C. Crime and the Criminal Justice System
• Ask students to discuss whether they agree that the criminal justice system may
contribute to crime.

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6
• Discuss various ways in which the criminal justice system can contribute to a
criminal event or reduce the amount of crime.
D. Crime and the Victim
• Emphasize that saying that the victim plays a part in the social construction of crime
is not the same thing as victim blaming.
• Ask students to identify ways in which a victim might contribute to the occurrence of
a crime event. Have them discuss whether the victim should be seen as responsible
for the crime and how this could affect social views of the offender’s guilt or
innocence.
E. Crime and Society
• Ask students what is involved in viewing crime as a social event and what such a
view might add to our understanding of crime.
• Lead a discussion as to why the fear of random violence as increased. Ask students
how this increased awareness and fear of random violence affects people.
• Ask students to consider how media reports of criminal events present the
perspectives of the offender, the victim, the criminal justice system, and society.
Discuss whether it is important for the media to present all perspectives equally.
F. The Consequences of Crime
XI. The Primacy of Sociology?
• Explain to students that many of the theorists they will study in the textbook are primary
based in sociology or have been influenced by the writings of sociologists. Emile
Durkheim is a good example of the latter because his work on modern society and social
change has influenced several different criminological theories.
• Point out that although sociology is the primary perspective upon which criminology
traditionally has been based, many other disciplines make important contributions as
well.
LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE
• A discussion of undocumented residents and federal immigration policy is now included.
• A discussion of sanctuary cities is used to illustrate varying perspectives on crime and
deviance.
• Marijuana laws are also offered as an example of varying perspectives on crime and
deviance, and updates are provided on the legal status of marijuana in various jurisdictions.
• The discussion on the interdisciplinary nature of criminology has been updated, and the
section on individual responsibility and the law has been expanded.
ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES
Additional Lecture Topics
The Impact of the Mass Media on Crime. The mass media includes not only television news
but also television reality programs, non-reality-based television programs, movies, radio news,
and newspapers. This lecture segment could include:

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