Solution Manual for Method and Practice in Biological Anthropology: A Workbook and Laboratory Manual for Introductory Courses, 2nd Edition
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Chapter 1: The Scientific Method
Reading Questions
1. The idea that the universe is controlled by a supernatural force or deity is best described as
a(n): (a) empiricism, (b) cause and effect, (c) teleology, (d) scientific theory.
2. The first step in the scientific method is: (a) formulation of a hypothesis, (b) observation of
an event, (c) setting up an experiment, (d) theorizing on the likely result.
3. Scientific reports of experiments are usually reported by the investigators in: (a) newspapers,
(b) textbooks, (c) scientific journals, (d) magazines.
4. The basic assumption in science that all humans experience events in the same way through
their senses is called: (a) uniformity in space and time, (b) natural causality, (c) cause and
effect, (d) common perception.
5. A scientific statement that is based on experimental data and has some validity is known as
a(n): (a) conclusion, (b) theory, (c) hypothesis, (d) explanation.
6. The condition or event that may change in an experiment is the: (a) independent variable, (b)
controlled variable, (c) original observation, (d) dependent variable.
7. True or False: The results of an experiment do not have to be repeatable.
8. True or False: An experiment wherein the researcher cannot control all of the variables,
common in animal behavior studies, is a natural experiment.
9. True or False: The variable that researchers try to keep the same for the experimental and
control groups is the dependent variable.
10. True or False: Evolution is a popular hypothesis in biology, which needs further support to
demonstrate its validity.
Reading Questions
1. The idea that the universe is controlled by a supernatural force or deity is best described as
a(n): (a) empiricism, (b) cause and effect, (c) teleology, (d) scientific theory.
2. The first step in the scientific method is: (a) formulation of a hypothesis, (b) observation of
an event, (c) setting up an experiment, (d) theorizing on the likely result.
3. Scientific reports of experiments are usually reported by the investigators in: (a) newspapers,
(b) textbooks, (c) scientific journals, (d) magazines.
4. The basic assumption in science that all humans experience events in the same way through
their senses is called: (a) uniformity in space and time, (b) natural causality, (c) cause and
effect, (d) common perception.
5. A scientific statement that is based on experimental data and has some validity is known as
a(n): (a) conclusion, (b) theory, (c) hypothesis, (d) explanation.
6. The condition or event that may change in an experiment is the: (a) independent variable, (b)
controlled variable, (c) original observation, (d) dependent variable.
7. True or False: The results of an experiment do not have to be repeatable.
8. True or False: An experiment wherein the researcher cannot control all of the variables,
common in animal behavior studies, is a natural experiment.
9. True or False: The variable that researchers try to keep the same for the experimental and
control groups is the dependent variable.
10. True or False: Evolution is a popular hypothesis in biology, which needs further support to
demonstrate its validity.
Chapter 1: The Scientific Method
Reading Questions
1. The idea that the universe is controlled by a supernatural force or deity is best described as
a(n): (a) empiricism, (b) cause and effect, (c) teleology, (d) scientific theory.
2. The first step in the scientific method is: (a) formulation of a hypothesis, (b) observation of
an event, (c) setting up an experiment, (d) theorizing on the likely result.
3. Scientific reports of experiments are usually reported by the investigators in: (a) newspapers,
(b) textbooks, (c) scientific journals, (d) magazines.
4. The basic assumption in science that all humans experience events in the same way through
their senses is called: (a) uniformity in space and time, (b) natural causality, (c) cause and
effect, (d) common perception.
5. A scientific statement that is based on experimental data and has some validity is known as
a(n): (a) conclusion, (b) theory, (c) hypothesis, (d) explanation.
6. The condition or event that may change in an experiment is the: (a) independent variable, (b)
controlled variable, (c) original observation, (d) dependent variable.
7. True or False: The results of an experiment do not have to be repeatable.
8. True or False: An experiment wherein the researcher cannot control all of the variables,
common in animal behavior studies, is a natural experiment.
9. True or False: The variable that researchers try to keep the same for the experimental and
control groups is the dependent variable.
10. True or False: Evolution is a popular hypothesis in biology, which needs further support to
demonstrate its validity.
Reading Questions
1. The idea that the universe is controlled by a supernatural force or deity is best described as
a(n): (a) empiricism, (b) cause and effect, (c) teleology, (d) scientific theory.
2. The first step in the scientific method is: (a) formulation of a hypothesis, (b) observation of
an event, (c) setting up an experiment, (d) theorizing on the likely result.
3. Scientific reports of experiments are usually reported by the investigators in: (a) newspapers,
(b) textbooks, (c) scientific journals, (d) magazines.
4. The basic assumption in science that all humans experience events in the same way through
their senses is called: (a) uniformity in space and time, (b) natural causality, (c) cause and
effect, (d) common perception.
5. A scientific statement that is based on experimental data and has some validity is known as
a(n): (a) conclusion, (b) theory, (c) hypothesis, (d) explanation.
6. The condition or event that may change in an experiment is the: (a) independent variable, (b)
controlled variable, (c) original observation, (d) dependent variable.
7. True or False: The results of an experiment do not have to be repeatable.
8. True or False: An experiment wherein the researcher cannot control all of the variables,
common in animal behavior studies, is a natural experiment.
9. True or False: The variable that researchers try to keep the same for the experimental and
control groups is the dependent variable.
10. True or False: Evolution is a popular hypothesis in biology, which needs further support to
demonstrate its validity.
In-Class Exercises
Exercise 1
Some people claim that epileptic seizures are the result of a supernatural force being directed at a
person for punishment of past behavior. Is this a statement of cause and effect or teleology?
Does it violate any of the assumptions above? If so, which one?
Teleology, Yes, it violates natural causality.
Others claim that epilepsy is the result of neurons misfiring in the brain of afflicted individuals.
Does this statement represent cause and effect or teleology? Does it violate any of the
assumptions above? If so, which one?
Cause and effect, No it does not violate any assumptions.
Exercise 2
An experiment is done to test the effect of a new experimental drug for high cholesterol.
A group of 200 volunteers are separated into two groups of 100 each. Both groups are instructed
to follow a similar diet and activity level. Group 1 is given the experimental drug daily for 90
days, while Group 2 is given a placebo. The individuals in the groups do not know whether they
are taking the new drug or the placebo. All participants are tested at the start of the study for their
serum cholesterol levels. The average for Group 1 is 310 mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is
302 mg/dl.
After 90 days, all participants’ serum cholesterol is tested with a blood test. The average
serum cholesterol level for Group 1 is 299mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is 300mg/dl.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The experimental drug will lower the cholesterol of
individuals who have high cholesterol. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The serum cholesterol level
c. What are the independent variables? The drug and placebo
d. Which variables are controlled? Group size, diet and activities
Exercise 1
Some people claim that epileptic seizures are the result of a supernatural force being directed at a
person for punishment of past behavior. Is this a statement of cause and effect or teleology?
Does it violate any of the assumptions above? If so, which one?
Teleology, Yes, it violates natural causality.
Others claim that epilepsy is the result of neurons misfiring in the brain of afflicted individuals.
Does this statement represent cause and effect or teleology? Does it violate any of the
assumptions above? If so, which one?
Cause and effect, No it does not violate any assumptions.
Exercise 2
An experiment is done to test the effect of a new experimental drug for high cholesterol.
A group of 200 volunteers are separated into two groups of 100 each. Both groups are instructed
to follow a similar diet and activity level. Group 1 is given the experimental drug daily for 90
days, while Group 2 is given a placebo. The individuals in the groups do not know whether they
are taking the new drug or the placebo. All participants are tested at the start of the study for their
serum cholesterol levels. The average for Group 1 is 310 mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is
302 mg/dl.
After 90 days, all participants’ serum cholesterol is tested with a blood test. The average
serum cholesterol level for Group 1 is 299mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is 300mg/dl.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The experimental drug will lower the cholesterol of
individuals who have high cholesterol. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The serum cholesterol level
c. What are the independent variables? The drug and placebo
d. Which variables are controlled? Group size, diet and activities
In-Class Exercises
Exercise 1
Some people claim that epileptic seizures are the result of a supernatural force being directed at a
person for punishment of past behavior. Is this a statement of cause and effect or teleology?
Does it violate any of the assumptions above? If so, which one?
Teleology, Yes, it violates natural causality.
Others claim that epilepsy is the result of neurons misfiring in the brain of afflicted individuals.
Does this statement represent cause and effect or teleology? Does it violate any of the
assumptions above? If so, which one?
Cause and effect, No it does not violate any assumptions.
Exercise 2
An experiment is done to test the effect of a new experimental drug for high cholesterol.
A group of 200 volunteers are separated into two groups of 100 each. Both groups are instructed
to follow a similar diet and activity level. Group 1 is given the experimental drug daily for 90
days, while Group 2 is given a placebo. The individuals in the groups do not know whether they
are taking the new drug or the placebo. All participants are tested at the start of the study for their
serum cholesterol levels. The average for Group 1 is 310 mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is
302 mg/dl.
After 90 days, all participants’ serum cholesterol is tested with a blood test. The average
serum cholesterol level for Group 1 is 299mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is 300mg/dl.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The experimental drug will lower the cholesterol of
individuals who have high cholesterol. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The serum cholesterol level
c. What are the independent variables? The drug and placebo
d. Which variables are controlled? Group size, diet and activities
Exercise 1
Some people claim that epileptic seizures are the result of a supernatural force being directed at a
person for punishment of past behavior. Is this a statement of cause and effect or teleology?
Does it violate any of the assumptions above? If so, which one?
Teleology, Yes, it violates natural causality.
Others claim that epilepsy is the result of neurons misfiring in the brain of afflicted individuals.
Does this statement represent cause and effect or teleology? Does it violate any of the
assumptions above? If so, which one?
Cause and effect, No it does not violate any assumptions.
Exercise 2
An experiment is done to test the effect of a new experimental drug for high cholesterol.
A group of 200 volunteers are separated into two groups of 100 each. Both groups are instructed
to follow a similar diet and activity level. Group 1 is given the experimental drug daily for 90
days, while Group 2 is given a placebo. The individuals in the groups do not know whether they
are taking the new drug or the placebo. All participants are tested at the start of the study for their
serum cholesterol levels. The average for Group 1 is 310 mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is
302 mg/dl.
After 90 days, all participants’ serum cholesterol is tested with a blood test. The average
serum cholesterol level for Group 1 is 299mg/dl and the average for Group 2 is 300mg/dl.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The experimental drug will lower the cholesterol of
individuals who have high cholesterol. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The serum cholesterol level
c. What are the independent variables? The drug and placebo
d. Which variables are controlled? Group size, diet and activities
e. Which is the control group? Group 2 (given the placebo)
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Not really. The mean
values for Group 1 did decrease more than for the control group (Group 2), but not by
much (cholesterol is still quite high).
Exercise 3
An experiment is done to test the effect of a high-fat diet on mice. In all, 50 weanling
mice are separated at random into two groups of 25 each. At the start of the experiment all mice
weight approximately the same amount, about 20 g. Group 1 is fed a normal diet with balanced
amounts of protein, carbohydrates, vitamin supplements and fat. Group 2 is fed the same amount
of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamin supplements, but given a much higher fat content. The
cages are cleaned and mice are given fresh food and water daily.
After 6 months all mice are weighed. The average weight in grams for group 1 was 8.2g.
The average weight for group 2 was 12.6g.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? A diet high in fat will cause mice to gain more wait
than one with a normal, balanced diet. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The weight of the mice
c. What are the independent variables? The amount of fat in the diet
d. Which variables are controlled? The amount of protein, carbohydrates, vitamin
supplements and fat, how often the cages are cleaned, and how often the mice are given
fresh food and water.
e. Which is the control group? Group 1(lower fat diet)
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Yes, the average weight
for Group 1 is much less than for Group 2. The Group 2 mice are heavier.
Exercise 4
An experiment is done to test the effect of artificial light on geraniums. Seventy-five
geranium seedlings are grown in a laboratory. The plants are separated into five groups of 15
plants each. The following table shows the groups, how much light each receives per day, and
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Not really. The mean
values for Group 1 did decrease more than for the control group (Group 2), but not by
much (cholesterol is still quite high).
Exercise 3
An experiment is done to test the effect of a high-fat diet on mice. In all, 50 weanling
mice are separated at random into two groups of 25 each. At the start of the experiment all mice
weight approximately the same amount, about 20 g. Group 1 is fed a normal diet with balanced
amounts of protein, carbohydrates, vitamin supplements and fat. Group 2 is fed the same amount
of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamin supplements, but given a much higher fat content. The
cages are cleaned and mice are given fresh food and water daily.
After 6 months all mice are weighed. The average weight in grams for group 1 was 8.2g.
The average weight for group 2 was 12.6g.
Using this information answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? A diet high in fat will cause mice to gain more wait
than one with a normal, balanced diet. (Hypotheses may be written differently, using an
H0 and HA scenario)
b. What is the dependent variable? The weight of the mice
c. What are the independent variables? The amount of fat in the diet
d. Which variables are controlled? The amount of protein, carbohydrates, vitamin
supplements and fat, how often the cages are cleaned, and how often the mice are given
fresh food and water.
e. Which is the control group? Group 1(lower fat diet)
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Yes, the average weight
for Group 1 is much less than for Group 2. The Group 2 mice are heavier.
Exercise 4
An experiment is done to test the effect of artificial light on geraniums. Seventy-five
geranium seedlings are grown in a laboratory. The plants are separated into five groups of 15
plants each. The following table shows the groups, how much light each receives per day, and
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the average height of the plants after 180 days in the laboratory. All plants are fed the same
amount of water and fertilizer daily. Group 4 receives as much light as all the other plants in the
laboratory, which are not part of the experiment. Thus, 16 hours is average. Groups 1 and 3
receive less light than average, and Group 5 received more light than average.
Group # Hours of light per day Height at 180 days
1 3 5.0 cm
2 6 14.5 cm
3 12 29.2 cm
4 16 36.1 cm
5 24 25.4 cm
Using this information, answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The more light a geranium gets per day, the
taller it will grow. (Hypotheses may be written differently, with an H0 and HA
scenario).
b. What is the dependent variable? The height of the geraniums
c. What are the independent variables? The amount of light per day
d. Which variables are controlled? The amount of water and fertilizer (also group size,
length of study)
e. Which is the control group? Group 4 (with the average light per day)
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Yes, up to 16 hours of
light per day (the more light geraniums received, the taller they grew). But, when
given 24 hours of light per day, growth was reduced.
Exercise 5
A series of observations that might be made by a biological anthropologist are listed at
the end of this paragraph. Working in teams, choose one observation from the list, formulate a
valid, testable hypothesis, and roughly design an experiment to test your hypothesis. In your
work, state your hypothesis, dependent variable, independent variable, and control variable(s).
*The answers to this question can very greatly. The hypotheses listed are just examples.*
a. Children from low income households show evidence of malnutrition.
amount of water and fertilizer daily. Group 4 receives as much light as all the other plants in the
laboratory, which are not part of the experiment. Thus, 16 hours is average. Groups 1 and 3
receive less light than average, and Group 5 received more light than average.
Group # Hours of light per day Height at 180 days
1 3 5.0 cm
2 6 14.5 cm
3 12 29.2 cm
4 16 36.1 cm
5 24 25.4 cm
Using this information, answer the following:
a. What is the hypothesis being tested? The more light a geranium gets per day, the
taller it will grow. (Hypotheses may be written differently, with an H0 and HA
scenario).
b. What is the dependent variable? The height of the geraniums
c. What are the independent variables? The amount of light per day
d. Which variables are controlled? The amount of water and fertilizer (also group size,
length of study)
e. Which is the control group? Group 4 (with the average light per day)
f. Did the experiment produce data that supports the hypothesis? Yes, up to 16 hours of
light per day (the more light geraniums received, the taller they grew). But, when
given 24 hours of light per day, growth was reduced.
Exercise 5
A series of observations that might be made by a biological anthropologist are listed at
the end of this paragraph. Working in teams, choose one observation from the list, formulate a
valid, testable hypothesis, and roughly design an experiment to test your hypothesis. In your
work, state your hypothesis, dependent variable, independent variable, and control variable(s).
*The answers to this question can very greatly. The hypotheses listed are just examples.*
a. Children from low income households show evidence of malnutrition.
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H0: Low income families cannot afford to purchase enough fruits and vegetables so their
children are malnourished.
b. In most humans, the right humerus (upper arm bone) is larger than the left humerus.
H0: The right humerus is larger in most humans due to most humans being right handed.
c. Expectant mothers who smoke often have low-birth-weight babies.
H0: The chemicals in cigarette smoke will slow fetal growth.
d. People living on the island of Palau have the highest rates of schizophrenia in the world.
H0: The betelnut that is chewed on the island causes schizophrenia.
e. Orangutans living in zoos tend to be overweight when compared to their wild
counterparts.
H0: Orangutans living in zoos do not exercise as much as those living in the wild and are
fed a steady diet, causing them to be overweight compared to their wild counterparts who
must forage for their food.
Exercise 6
a. Review an article from a biological anthropology journal. Below list the titles and
functions of the various sections.
*Answers may vary depending on journal article chosen*
• For example, Abstract – summary of paper
• Introduction – what the study is going to do, background literature
• Materials and Methods – how the researcher(s) performed the experiment and what
samples they used to do so
• Results – the results of the experiment, usually with lots of tables and graphs
• Discussion – what the results mean and how they fit within the existing knowledge of the
subject
• Conclusion – A summing up of the data and how this information will be used and added
to in the future
b. In which section do you find the hypothesis being tested, or the study questions?
Introduction
children are malnourished.
b. In most humans, the right humerus (upper arm bone) is larger than the left humerus.
H0: The right humerus is larger in most humans due to most humans being right handed.
c. Expectant mothers who smoke often have low-birth-weight babies.
H0: The chemicals in cigarette smoke will slow fetal growth.
d. People living on the island of Palau have the highest rates of schizophrenia in the world.
H0: The betelnut that is chewed on the island causes schizophrenia.
e. Orangutans living in zoos tend to be overweight when compared to their wild
counterparts.
H0: Orangutans living in zoos do not exercise as much as those living in the wild and are
fed a steady diet, causing them to be overweight compared to their wild counterparts who
must forage for their food.
Exercise 6
a. Review an article from a biological anthropology journal. Below list the titles and
functions of the various sections.
*Answers may vary depending on journal article chosen*
• For example, Abstract – summary of paper
• Introduction – what the study is going to do, background literature
• Materials and Methods – how the researcher(s) performed the experiment and what
samples they used to do so
• Results – the results of the experiment, usually with lots of tables and graphs
• Discussion – what the results mean and how they fit within the existing knowledge of the
subject
• Conclusion – A summing up of the data and how this information will be used and added
to in the future
b. In which section do you find the hypothesis being tested, or the study questions?
Introduction
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c. Where would you look to find the details necessary to repeat this experiment?
Materials and Methods
Post-Lab Questions
1. How does modern science differ from faith? How do these compare in terms of teleological
or cause-and-effect explanations?
Modern science is based on scientific methodology and the ability to test the possible
answers to natural phenomena. Faith is based on belief without needing to “prove” or test
such beliefs. Modern science relies upon cause and effect, while faith relies upon teleology
2. Describe the three assumptions all sciences are based on.
Natural Causality – All phenomena have a basis in nature or natural explanation
Uniformity in Space and Time – All phenomena will occur the same way regardless of the
whenever or wherever it occurs
Common Perception – all individuals perceive events through their senses in the same way
3. Describe the steps of the scientific method.
Observation – A researcher observes a natural phenomena that is repeatable
Hypothesis – The researcher comes up with a reason why the natural phenomena occurs
Experiment - The researcher tests his/her hypothesis to see if it is accurate
Conclusion – The researcher sums up the experiment and determines if the hypothesis was
accurate or not.
4. What does an experiment test?
The hypothesis
5. Describe the difference between the:
• independent variable – the variable that adjusted/manipulated to test the outcome
Materials and Methods
Post-Lab Questions
1. How does modern science differ from faith? How do these compare in terms of teleological
or cause-and-effect explanations?
Modern science is based on scientific methodology and the ability to test the possible
answers to natural phenomena. Faith is based on belief without needing to “prove” or test
such beliefs. Modern science relies upon cause and effect, while faith relies upon teleology
2. Describe the three assumptions all sciences are based on.
Natural Causality – All phenomena have a basis in nature or natural explanation
Uniformity in Space and Time – All phenomena will occur the same way regardless of the
whenever or wherever it occurs
Common Perception – all individuals perceive events through their senses in the same way
3. Describe the steps of the scientific method.
Observation – A researcher observes a natural phenomena that is repeatable
Hypothesis – The researcher comes up with a reason why the natural phenomena occurs
Experiment - The researcher tests his/her hypothesis to see if it is accurate
Conclusion – The researcher sums up the experiment and determines if the hypothesis was
accurate or not.
4. What does an experiment test?
The hypothesis
5. Describe the difference between the:
• independent variable – the variable that adjusted/manipulated to test the outcome
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• dependent variable - the variable that is being tested, it may be affected by
changing the independent variable
• control variable – Variables that are being held constant by the researcher
6. Using Exercise 2, 3, or 4, can you identify any variables that were not controlled for in the
study that could have been controlled?
*Answers will vary and may include: *
Exercise 2 – Amount of sleep, genetic predispositions, other medications and supplements…
Exercise 3 – Amount of exercise, amount of light…
Exercise 4 – size of the pot the plants are in, type of soil
7. Reviewing your team’s answers to Exercise 5, can you think of an alternate test of your
hypothesis? Was anything left out of your original experiment?
Student answers will vary.
8. Choose a research article from a physical anthropology journal online or in the library. Can
you identify what hypothesis the author(s) is/are testing? Is the experiment designed in such a
way that it might be repeated by another investigator?
Student answers will vary.
changing the independent variable
• control variable – Variables that are being held constant by the researcher
6. Using Exercise 2, 3, or 4, can you identify any variables that were not controlled for in the
study that could have been controlled?
*Answers will vary and may include: *
Exercise 2 – Amount of sleep, genetic predispositions, other medications and supplements…
Exercise 3 – Amount of exercise, amount of light…
Exercise 4 – size of the pot the plants are in, type of soil
7. Reviewing your team’s answers to Exercise 5, can you think of an alternate test of your
hypothesis? Was anything left out of your original experiment?
Student answers will vary.
8. Choose a research article from a physical anthropology journal online or in the library. Can
you identify what hypothesis the author(s) is/are testing? Is the experiment designed in such a
way that it might be repeated by another investigator?
Student answers will vary.
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Chapter 2: Cell Biology and DNA
Reading Questions
1. Which of the following individuals was responsible for coining the term “cell”? (a) Hooke,
(b) Darwin, (c) Wilkins, (d) Watson.
2. Prokaryotic cells are distinguishable from eukaryotic cells because prokaryotes do not
contain: (a) organelles, (b) a plasma membrane, (c) DNA, (d) a nucleus.
3. Chromosome strands are called (a) centromeres, (b) alleles, (c) chromatids, (d) homologues.
4. Alternate forms of a gene are called (a) alleles, (b) sister chromatids (c) homologues (d)
replicated DNA.
5. Sister chromatids separate during nuclear division in (a) mitosis, (b) meiosis I, (c) meiosis II,
(d) both a and c.
6. Who won the Nobel Prize in 1962 for identifying the structure of DNA? (a) Hooke, (b)
Meischer, (c) Watson and Franklin, (d) Watson, Crick, and Franklin.
7. Which of the following is a possible base pairing in DNA? (a) adenine-cytosine, (b)
adenine-thymine, (c) cytosine-thymine, (d) thymine-guanine.
8. Transcription in DNA (a) results in the formation of an identical DNA strand, (b) results in
the formation of mRNA, (c) happens in the nucleus, (d) requires the assistance of tRNA
anticodons.
9. True or False: DNA replication occurs in the ribosome.
10. True or False: Crossing over is an important source of variability.
In-Class Exercises
Exercise 1
Why do gametes have only 23 chromosomes, one of each pair? Because when they combine
during fertilization the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes, one of each pair
from mom and the other of each pair from dad.
Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes in their somatic cells. How many chromosomes do you
think are found in their sex cells? 24
Reading Questions
1. Which of the following individuals was responsible for coining the term “cell”? (a) Hooke,
(b) Darwin, (c) Wilkins, (d) Watson.
2. Prokaryotic cells are distinguishable from eukaryotic cells because prokaryotes do not
contain: (a) organelles, (b) a plasma membrane, (c) DNA, (d) a nucleus.
3. Chromosome strands are called (a) centromeres, (b) alleles, (c) chromatids, (d) homologues.
4. Alternate forms of a gene are called (a) alleles, (b) sister chromatids (c) homologues (d)
replicated DNA.
5. Sister chromatids separate during nuclear division in (a) mitosis, (b) meiosis I, (c) meiosis II,
(d) both a and c.
6. Who won the Nobel Prize in 1962 for identifying the structure of DNA? (a) Hooke, (b)
Meischer, (c) Watson and Franklin, (d) Watson, Crick, and Franklin.
7. Which of the following is a possible base pairing in DNA? (a) adenine-cytosine, (b)
adenine-thymine, (c) cytosine-thymine, (d) thymine-guanine.
8. Transcription in DNA (a) results in the formation of an identical DNA strand, (b) results in
the formation of mRNA, (c) happens in the nucleus, (d) requires the assistance of tRNA
anticodons.
9. True or False: DNA replication occurs in the ribosome.
10. True or False: Crossing over is an important source of variability.
In-Class Exercises
Exercise 1
Why do gametes have only 23 chromosomes, one of each pair? Because when they combine
during fertilization the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes, one of each pair
from mom and the other of each pair from dad.
Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes in their somatic cells. How many chromosomes do you
think are found in their sex cells? 24
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Exercise 2
*Exercise requires karyotype and answers will vary *
Exercise 3
*Exercise requires microscope and answers will vary depending on phases present*
Exercise 4
Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis in the human with the following matching questions.
a 1. happens in the body cells a. mitosis
b 2. produces 4 daughter cells
c 3. begins with 46 chromosomes b. meiosis
a 4. produces 2 daughter cells
a 5. one nuclear division c. both mitosis and meiosis
c 6. one chromosome replication
b 7. happens in the testes and ovaries
b 8. daughter cells have 23 chromosomes each
b 9. two nuclear divisions
a 10. daughter cells are diploid
Exercise 5
Draw a homologous pair of chromosomes. Use one color (e.g. pink) for one member of
the pair and use a second color (e.g. blue) for the second member of the pair.
Next, draw the two chromosomes crossing over, so that the two colors are touching.
Third, draw the two chromosomes after the crossing over is completed and they have shuffled
their gene pairs, exchanging genes (colors) between them. Have at least one exchange. Compare
your drawing to others in the class and see the amount of variation that might be possible.
*Answers will vary but may look like the following:*
*Exercise requires karyotype and answers will vary *
Exercise 3
*Exercise requires microscope and answers will vary depending on phases present*
Exercise 4
Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis in the human with the following matching questions.
a 1. happens in the body cells a. mitosis
b 2. produces 4 daughter cells
c 3. begins with 46 chromosomes b. meiosis
a 4. produces 2 daughter cells
a 5. one nuclear division c. both mitosis and meiosis
c 6. one chromosome replication
b 7. happens in the testes and ovaries
b 8. daughter cells have 23 chromosomes each
b 9. two nuclear divisions
a 10. daughter cells are diploid
Exercise 5
Draw a homologous pair of chromosomes. Use one color (e.g. pink) for one member of
the pair and use a second color (e.g. blue) for the second member of the pair.
Next, draw the two chromosomes crossing over, so that the two colors are touching.
Third, draw the two chromosomes after the crossing over is completed and they have shuffled
their gene pairs, exchanging genes (colors) between them. Have at least one exchange. Compare
your drawing to others in the class and see the amount of variation that might be possible.
*Answers will vary but may look like the following:*
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Exercise 6
Practice DNA base pairing:
Consider the following DNA strand: A T C C T A G G T C A G
Identify the complementary bases: T A G G A T C C A G T C
Now, practice DNA replication. Consider the following double stranded DNA molecule.
Notice that the DNA bases are paired accordingly. Separate the strands and replicate them,
identifying which strands are original and which are the new complementary strands. Write the
complementary bases for the top strand above the strand and the complementary bases for the
bottom strand below the strand.
New strand: A T G C C G T T G A C T C G A
Top strand: T A C G G C A A C T G A G C T
_______________________________________
Bottom strand: A T G C C G T T G A C T C G A
New strand: T A C G G C A A C T G A G C T
Exercise 7
Practice DNA base pairing:
Consider the following DNA strand: A T C C T A G G T C A G
Identify the complementary bases: T A G G A T C C A G T C
Now, practice DNA replication. Consider the following double stranded DNA molecule.
Notice that the DNA bases are paired accordingly. Separate the strands and replicate them,
identifying which strands are original and which are the new complementary strands. Write the
complementary bases for the top strand above the strand and the complementary bases for the
bottom strand below the strand.
New strand: A T G C C G T T G A C T C G A
Top strand: T A C G G C A A C T G A G C T
_______________________________________
Bottom strand: A T G C C G T T G A C T C G A
New strand: T A C G G C A A C T G A G C T
Exercise 7
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The following chart lists all possible mRNA codons and the 20 amino acids they code
for. Note that there is some redundancy in the code. Also note that some codons code for start or
stop, which tells the cell where to start or stop making the protein. Using this information, fill in
the blanks below the chart for the amino acid each codon calls for.
UCA Serine GUA Valine
UGG Tryptophan AGA Arginine
CUC Leucine GCC Alanine
CAU Histidine AUG Start (Methionine)
Exercise 8
The following is a template strand of DNA:
A C G G T T C A T G C A
a. What is the complimentary mRNA strand?
U G C C A A G U A C G U
b. What are the complimentary tRNA anticodons?
ACG; GUU; CAU; GCA
c. Using the chart from the previous exercise, what is the sequence of amino acids for this
peptide chain? Be sure to use the mRNA codons when reading the chart!
UGC: Cysteine; CAA: Glutamine; GUA: Valine; CGU: Arginine
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the difference between the autosomes and the sex chromosomes.
Answers should include some or all of the following: Autosomes are always homologous
pairs and contain information pertaining to body structure and function; they comprise pairs
1-22 in humans. The sex chromosomes (pair 23) are homologous in females but not in
males, since the X and Y chromosome are different lengths and the Y chromosome carries
information primarily pertaining to the biological sex of the individual.
for. Note that there is some redundancy in the code. Also note that some codons code for start or
stop, which tells the cell where to start or stop making the protein. Using this information, fill in
the blanks below the chart for the amino acid each codon calls for.
UCA Serine GUA Valine
UGG Tryptophan AGA Arginine
CUC Leucine GCC Alanine
CAU Histidine AUG Start (Methionine)
Exercise 8
The following is a template strand of DNA:
A C G G T T C A T G C A
a. What is the complimentary mRNA strand?
U G C C A A G U A C G U
b. What are the complimentary tRNA anticodons?
ACG; GUU; CAU; GCA
c. Using the chart from the previous exercise, what is the sequence of amino acids for this
peptide chain? Be sure to use the mRNA codons when reading the chart!
UGC: Cysteine; CAA: Glutamine; GUA: Valine; CGU: Arginine
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the difference between the autosomes and the sex chromosomes.
Answers should include some or all of the following: Autosomes are always homologous
pairs and contain information pertaining to body structure and function; they comprise pairs
1-22 in humans. The sex chromosomes (pair 23) are homologous in females but not in
males, since the X and Y chromosome are different lengths and the Y chromosome carries
information primarily pertaining to the biological sex of the individual.
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2. How many chromosomes were there in your karyotype set? Was this the normal number for
humans?
*Depends upon the student’s karyotype*. 46 is the normal number. Some kits offer
mutations.
3. Referring to your lecture textbook, or the Internet, discuss the clinical symptoms associated
with any anomaly you identified in your karyotype.
*Student activity, answers will vary.* Some karyotype kits offer Turner’s syndrome,
Klinefelter’s syndrome, Down Syndrome, and XYY Males.
4. How do you determine the sex of an individual when examining their karyotype?
By looking at the sex chromosomes – if there are 2 identical chromosomes, the individual is
XX and female. If one of the chromosomes is small and the other is large, the individual is
XY and male.
5. How are the different types of chromosomes identified for a karyotype?
Based on size, length of arms and position of the centromere.
6. If the chromosome number for an organism is 22 before mitosis, what is the chromosome
number of each daughter cell after mitosis has taken place?
22
7. Why does DNA replicate prior to mitosis?
So that each daughter cell has the complete complement of chromosomes.
8. What do you think might happen if a cell underwent mitosis but not cytokinesis?
The cell without the cytoplasm and associated organelles would not survive (this is common
in females, one gamete gets all cellular contents, the ovum, while the other three get
little/none and are called polar bodies, which resorb).
humans?
*Depends upon the student’s karyotype*. 46 is the normal number. Some kits offer
mutations.
3. Referring to your lecture textbook, or the Internet, discuss the clinical symptoms associated
with any anomaly you identified in your karyotype.
*Student activity, answers will vary.* Some karyotype kits offer Turner’s syndrome,
Klinefelter’s syndrome, Down Syndrome, and XYY Males.
4. How do you determine the sex of an individual when examining their karyotype?
By looking at the sex chromosomes – if there are 2 identical chromosomes, the individual is
XX and female. If one of the chromosomes is small and the other is large, the individual is
XY and male.
5. How are the different types of chromosomes identified for a karyotype?
Based on size, length of arms and position of the centromere.
6. If the chromosome number for an organism is 22 before mitosis, what is the chromosome
number of each daughter cell after mitosis has taken place?
22
7. Why does DNA replicate prior to mitosis?
So that each daughter cell has the complete complement of chromosomes.
8. What do you think might happen if a cell underwent mitosis but not cytokinesis?
The cell without the cytoplasm and associated organelles would not survive (this is common
in females, one gamete gets all cellular contents, the ovum, while the other three get
little/none and are called polar bodies, which resorb).
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9. If a cell in an organism had 16 chromosomes before meiosis, how many chromosomes would
exist in each nucleus after meiosis? What is the diploid number? What is the haploid
number?
8 after meiosis, 16 is diploid, 8 is haploid.
10. From a genetic standpoint, what is the significance of fertilization?
It is when the egg and sperm meet allowing the 23 chromosomes from the mother to unite
with the 23 chromosomes from the father (in humans) creating a zygote.
11. Describe the differences between haploid and diploid cells. Where are haploid and diploid
cells found?
Diploid cells have the full complement of chromosomes with all the homologous pairs.
Haploid cells have only half of the complement of chromosomes, with only one of each
chromosome from each homologous pair. Body cells are diploid, sex cells are haploid.
12. Discuss the differences you observed when comparing your crossing over diagram to others
in the class. How many different combinations did you see?
*Student activity – answers will vary because each person’s diagram will be at least slightly
different.*
13. What does it mean when we say DNA replication is semiconservative?
One parental strand remains intact, while a new complementary strand is formed.
14. Describe the differences in DNA and RNA structure.
DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded. DNA has a deoxyribose sugar, RNA
has ribose sugar; DNA has thymine, RNA does not, but has Uracil.
15. To transcribe means “make a copy of”. Is an exact copy of DNA made during the process of
transcription? Why or why not? No, because RNA does not have thymine, so it replaces it
with Uracil. Also, because of the law of complementary bases, the RNA strand is actually a
exist in each nucleus after meiosis? What is the diploid number? What is the haploid
number?
8 after meiosis, 16 is diploid, 8 is haploid.
10. From a genetic standpoint, what is the significance of fertilization?
It is when the egg and sperm meet allowing the 23 chromosomes from the mother to unite
with the 23 chromosomes from the father (in humans) creating a zygote.
11. Describe the differences between haploid and diploid cells. Where are haploid and diploid
cells found?
Diploid cells have the full complement of chromosomes with all the homologous pairs.
Haploid cells have only half of the complement of chromosomes, with only one of each
chromosome from each homologous pair. Body cells are diploid, sex cells are haploid.
12. Discuss the differences you observed when comparing your crossing over diagram to others
in the class. How many different combinations did you see?
*Student activity – answers will vary because each person’s diagram will be at least slightly
different.*
13. What does it mean when we say DNA replication is semiconservative?
One parental strand remains intact, while a new complementary strand is formed.
14. Describe the differences in DNA and RNA structure.
DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded. DNA has a deoxyribose sugar, RNA
has ribose sugar; DNA has thymine, RNA does not, but has Uracil.
15. To transcribe means “make a copy of”. Is an exact copy of DNA made during the process of
transcription? Why or why not? No, because RNA does not have thymine, so it replaces it
with Uracil. Also, because of the law of complementary bases, the RNA strand is actually a
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“mirror image” of the DNA strand that is being copied. Also the sugar molecules differ
between DNA and RNA.
16. Where does transcription happen? What about translation?
Transcription happens in the nucleus, translation occurs in the ribosome.
17. What amino acid would be produced if transcription took place from the DNA sequence
CAT?
(mRNA would be GUA), amino acid is Valine.
• If a genetic mistake took place during replication and the new DNA strand has the
sequence CAG, what is the new mRNA, and which amino acid would this result in?
(mRNA is GUC), amino acid is Valine.
• What if the genetic mistake resulted in a DNA strand with the sequence GAT?
(mRNA is CUA), amino acid is Leucine.
• Explain these results. Because there is some redundancy in the codons versus amino
acids some genetic mistakes will not result in a change of amino acids, while other
mistakes will.
between DNA and RNA.
16. Where does transcription happen? What about translation?
Transcription happens in the nucleus, translation occurs in the ribosome.
17. What amino acid would be produced if transcription took place from the DNA sequence
CAT?
(mRNA would be GUA), amino acid is Valine.
• If a genetic mistake took place during replication and the new DNA strand has the
sequence CAG, what is the new mRNA, and which amino acid would this result in?
(mRNA is GUC), amino acid is Valine.
• What if the genetic mistake resulted in a DNA strand with the sequence GAT?
(mRNA is CUA), amino acid is Leucine.
• Explain these results. Because there is some redundancy in the codons versus amino
acids some genetic mistakes will not result in a change of amino acids, while other
mistakes will.
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Chapter 3: Principles of Inheritance
Reading Questions
1. Mendel published his works in (a) 1965, (b) 1956, (c) 1776, (d) 1865.
2. In a dihybrid cross (a) only one trait is considered, (b) the parents are always heterozygous,
(c) two traits are considered, (d) all offspring must be heterozygous.
3. When all self fertilized offspring display the same traits as their parents, we know that the
parents are (a) hybrids, (b) heterozygous, (c) codominant, (d) true breeders.
4. The physical characteristics of an organism are referred to as the (a) dominant allele, (b)
gametes, (c) phenotype, (d) genotype.
5. An individual who is carrying two of the same alleles for a gene is known as (a)
homozygous, (b) heterozygous, (c) dominant, (d) a hybrid.
6. The allele that is masked or hidden in the genotype is the (a) heterozygote, (b) recessive
allele, (c) dominant allele, (d) true breeder.
7. When both alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype, this is called (a) incomplete
dominance, (b) codominance, (c) sex-linked, (d) recessive.
8. True or False: Sex-linked traits are often located on the X chromosome.
9. True or False: Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment states that during meiosis, the
chromosomes pair separates, so that each newly formed gamete receives one chromosome
from each pair.
10. True or False: Numerous traits in humans are inherited in a simple Mendelian fashion.
Reading Questions
1. Mendel published his works in (a) 1965, (b) 1956, (c) 1776, (d) 1865.
2. In a dihybrid cross (a) only one trait is considered, (b) the parents are always heterozygous,
(c) two traits are considered, (d) all offspring must be heterozygous.
3. When all self fertilized offspring display the same traits as their parents, we know that the
parents are (a) hybrids, (b) heterozygous, (c) codominant, (d) true breeders.
4. The physical characteristics of an organism are referred to as the (a) dominant allele, (b)
gametes, (c) phenotype, (d) genotype.
5. An individual who is carrying two of the same alleles for a gene is known as (a)
homozygous, (b) heterozygous, (c) dominant, (d) a hybrid.
6. The allele that is masked or hidden in the genotype is the (a) heterozygote, (b) recessive
allele, (c) dominant allele, (d) true breeder.
7. When both alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype, this is called (a) incomplete
dominance, (b) codominance, (c) sex-linked, (d) recessive.
8. True or False: Sex-linked traits are often located on the X chromosome.
9. True or False: Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment states that during meiosis, the
chromosomes pair separates, so that each newly formed gamete receives one chromosome
from each pair.
10. True or False: Numerous traits in humans are inherited in a simple Mendelian fashion.
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In-Class Exercises
No number/text question.
• Can you explain this discovery using our modern understanding of cell biology and DNA
from Chapter 2?
The particles that Mendel referred to were genes. Each parent contributed one gene for each
trait, the same as would happen in meiotic division to form the gametes and the subsequent
formation of the zygote. Mendel is describing meiosis and zygote formation.
Exercise 1
a. Mendel’s pea plants carry two alleles for the flower color gene, P for purple flowers, and
p for white flowers. What three possible combinations might exist in any one plant?
PP, Pp, pp
b. Mendel’s pea plants also carry two genes for plant height, T for tall plants and t for short
plants. Consider the genotypes in the following table and indicate the possible genotypes
of the gametes (Remember: Each gamete will only carry one allele).
Diploid genotype Gamete genotype Gamete genotype
TT T T
Tt T t
tt T t
c. Working in the opposite direction, during fertilization when the sperm and egg fuse, the
haploid cells come together and form a diploid zygote. In the table below, provide the
diploid genotypes that would occur by fusion of the following gamete genotypes.
Gamete genotype (Sperm) Gamete genotype (Ovum) Diploid genotype (Zygote)
T t tt
T t Tt
T T TT
No number/text question.
• Can you explain this discovery using our modern understanding of cell biology and DNA
from Chapter 2?
The particles that Mendel referred to were genes. Each parent contributed one gene for each
trait, the same as would happen in meiotic division to form the gametes and the subsequent
formation of the zygote. Mendel is describing meiosis and zygote formation.
Exercise 1
a. Mendel’s pea plants carry two alleles for the flower color gene, P for purple flowers, and
p for white flowers. What three possible combinations might exist in any one plant?
PP, Pp, pp
b. Mendel’s pea plants also carry two genes for plant height, T for tall plants and t for short
plants. Consider the genotypes in the following table and indicate the possible genotypes
of the gametes (Remember: Each gamete will only carry one allele).
Diploid genotype Gamete genotype Gamete genotype
TT T T
Tt T t
tt T t
c. Working in the opposite direction, during fertilization when the sperm and egg fuse, the
haploid cells come together and form a diploid zygote. In the table below, provide the
diploid genotypes that would occur by fusion of the following gamete genotypes.
Gamete genotype (Sperm) Gamete genotype (Ovum) Diploid genotype (Zygote)
T t tt
T t Tt
T T TT
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Exercise 2
We know that purple flowers in pea plants are dominant to white flowers. Using the example for
flower color above in Exercise 1, identify the flower colors for plants that have the following
genotypes. Label the homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
* PP Homozygous dominant - Purple
* Pp Heterozygous - Purple
* pp Homozygous recessive - White
Why? If a dominant allele is present, regardless of what the other allele is, the phenotype will be
dominant. The dominant allele masks the presence of the recessive allele. In order for a
recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the recessive allele.
Exercise 3
In Mendel’s pea plants, yellow seeds are dominant to green seeds. Using Y for yellow and y for
green, list the three possible genotypes, followed by their phenotype (yellow or green), and label
the homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
• YY – Homozygous dominant – Yellow
• Yy – Heterozygous – Yellow
• Yy – Homozygous recessive - Green
Exercise 4
For this exercise, let’s expand our practice to include three traits at once.
a. What gametes are produced from a plant that is Pp? P or p
b. What gametes are produced from a plant that is PpTt? PT, Pt, pT, or pt
c. What gametes are produced from a plant that is PpTtYy? PTY, Pty, PtY, Pty, pTY, pTy,
ptY, or pty
Exercise 5
We know that purple flowers in pea plants are dominant to white flowers. Using the example for
flower color above in Exercise 1, identify the flower colors for plants that have the following
genotypes. Label the homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
* PP Homozygous dominant - Purple
* Pp Heterozygous - Purple
* pp Homozygous recessive - White
Why? If a dominant allele is present, regardless of what the other allele is, the phenotype will be
dominant. The dominant allele masks the presence of the recessive allele. In order for a
recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the recessive allele.
Exercise 3
In Mendel’s pea plants, yellow seeds are dominant to green seeds. Using Y for yellow and y for
green, list the three possible genotypes, followed by their phenotype (yellow or green), and label
the homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
• YY – Homozygous dominant – Yellow
• Yy – Heterozygous – Yellow
• Yy – Homozygous recessive - Green
Exercise 4
For this exercise, let’s expand our practice to include three traits at once.
a. What gametes are produced from a plant that is Pp? P or p
b. What gametes are produced from a plant that is PpTt? PT, Pt, pT, or pt
c. What gametes are produced from a plant that is PpTtYy? PTY, Pty, PtY, Pty, pTY, pTy,
ptY, or pty
Exercise 5
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a. Considering that purple is dominant to white, and using P for purple and p for white,
draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous purple plant and a white flowered plant.
P p
p Pp pp
p Pp pp
b. What are the genotypes produced by this mating? Pp and pp
c. What are the phenotypes produced by this mating? Pp – purple and pp - white
d. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous? 50%
Exercise 6
a. We know that the allele for round seeds is dominant to the allele for wrinkled seeds. Using R
for round and r for wrinkled, draw a Punnett square crossing two plants that are both
heterozygous.
R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
b. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 25%
c. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 25%
d. What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
e. What percentage of the offspring is wrinkled? 25%
f. What percentage of the offspring is round? 75% Why? Because both the heterozygous and
the homozygous dominant will have the round phenotype.
Exercise 7
a. Calculate the Punnett square crossing two pink flowered petunias.
draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous purple plant and a white flowered plant.
P p
p Pp pp
p Pp pp
b. What are the genotypes produced by this mating? Pp and pp
c. What are the phenotypes produced by this mating? Pp – purple and pp - white
d. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous? 50%
Exercise 6
a. We know that the allele for round seeds is dominant to the allele for wrinkled seeds. Using R
for round and r for wrinkled, draw a Punnett square crossing two plants that are both
heterozygous.
R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
b. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 25%
c. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 25%
d. What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
e. What percentage of the offspring is wrinkled? 25%
f. What percentage of the offspring is round? 75% Why? Because both the heterozygous and
the homozygous dominant will have the round phenotype.
Exercise 7
a. Calculate the Punnett square crossing two pink flowered petunias.
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R W
R RR RW
W RW WW
What percentage of the offspring is pink? 50%
White? 25%
Red? 25%
b. Calculate the Punnett square crossing a roan shorthorn bull with a white cow.
R W
W RW WW
W RW WW
What percentage of the offspring has a roan coat? 50%
A red coat? 0%
A white coat? 50%
Exercise 8
a. Using X for normal vision and XC for colorblind, calculate the Punnett square that would
result from a carrier female mating with a colorblind male. Hint: the female genotype is
XCX and the male genotype is XCY.
Xc X
Xc Xc Xc Xc X
Y Xc Y X Y
b. What are the chances that they will produce a colorblind son? (1 out of 2) 50%
c. What are the chances that they will produce a colorblind daughter? (1 out of 2) 50%
d. Is there any way these parents might produce a daughter with normal vision? Yes If so,
how? If the mother gives her “normal” X to her daughter and the father donates his only
affected X, then the daughter will be XcX (normal vision, but a carrier).
e. Is there any chance these parents might produce a son with normal vision? Yes If so,
how? If the mother gives her “normal” X to her son, and dad donated his Y, then the son
would be XY.
R RR RW
W RW WW
What percentage of the offspring is pink? 50%
White? 25%
Red? 25%
b. Calculate the Punnett square crossing a roan shorthorn bull with a white cow.
R W
W RW WW
W RW WW
What percentage of the offspring has a roan coat? 50%
A red coat? 0%
A white coat? 50%
Exercise 8
a. Using X for normal vision and XC for colorblind, calculate the Punnett square that would
result from a carrier female mating with a colorblind male. Hint: the female genotype is
XCX and the male genotype is XCY.
Xc X
Xc Xc Xc Xc X
Y Xc Y X Y
b. What are the chances that they will produce a colorblind son? (1 out of 2) 50%
c. What are the chances that they will produce a colorblind daughter? (1 out of 2) 50%
d. Is there any way these parents might produce a daughter with normal vision? Yes If so,
how? If the mother gives her “normal” X to her daughter and the father donates his only
affected X, then the daughter will be XcX (normal vision, but a carrier).
e. Is there any chance these parents might produce a son with normal vision? Yes If so,
how? If the mother gives her “normal” X to her son, and dad donated his Y, then the son
would be XY.
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Exercise 9
a. Draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous taster and a nontaster.
P p
p Pp pp
p Pp pp
b. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
c. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 50%
d. What percentage of the offspring are tasters? 50%
Exercise 10
a. Draw a Punnett Square crossing a homozygous dominant person and a heterozygous
person.
E E
E EE EE
e Ee Ee
b. What are the chances of getting a child with the flaky gray earwax? 0%
c. What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
d. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous? 50%
Exercise11
For each trait in the chart below list your phenotype. Using the information collected by
everyone in your class, fill in the rest of the chart.
*Student activity – no answers provided. This chart will be different for each student and each
class!*
Exercise 12
a. List all of the possible genotypes for an individual with the ability to roll the tongue and a
cleft chin (hint: there are four possible combinations).
TTDD; TtDD; TTDd; TtDd
a. Draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous taster and a nontaster.
P p
p Pp pp
p Pp pp
b. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
c. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 50%
d. What percentage of the offspring are tasters? 50%
Exercise 10
a. Draw a Punnett Square crossing a homozygous dominant person and a heterozygous
person.
E E
E EE EE
e Ee Ee
b. What are the chances of getting a child with the flaky gray earwax? 0%
c. What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
d. What percentage of the offspring is homozygous? 50%
Exercise11
For each trait in the chart below list your phenotype. Using the information collected by
everyone in your class, fill in the rest of the chart.
*Student activity – no answers provided. This chart will be different for each student and each
class!*
Exercise 12
a. List all of the possible genotypes for an individual with the ability to roll the tongue and a
cleft chin (hint: there are four possible combinations).
TTDD; TtDD; TTDd; TtDd
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b. List all possible combinations for an individual that cannot roll his or her tongue and has
a cleft chin. ttDD; ttDd
c. List all possible genotypes for an individual that can roll his or her tongue and does not
have a cleft chin. TTdd; Ttdd
d. What is the genotype for an individual who cannot roll his or her tongue and does not
have a cleft chin? ttdd
e. Suppose an individual is heterozygous for both traits (tongue rolling and cleft chin). What
is their genotype? TtDd
f. What are the genotypes of the gametes this person could produce? TD; Td; tD; td
Exercise 13
Using the answer you got in Exercise 12, question f, you can set up a Punnett square for a
dihybrid problem, crossing two individuals that are heterozygous for tongue rolling and cleft
chin. This square will have 16 boxes. Insert the parental genotypes on the top and left side of the
box below, and calculate the possible offspring genotypes. When you are finished answer the
questions below.
TD Td tD td
TD
Td
tD
td
a. What are the chances of having a child that is:
* TTDD = 1/16 = 0.0625
* TtDd = 4/16 = 0.25
* TtDD = 2/16 = 0.125
* ttDd = 2/16 = 0.125
b. What are the chances of having a child that has a cleft chin and cannot roll their tongue?
TTDD TTDd TtDD TtDd
TTDd TTdd TtDd Ttdd
TtDD TtDd ttDD ttDd
TtDd Ttdd ttDd ttdd
a cleft chin. ttDD; ttDd
c. List all possible genotypes for an individual that can roll his or her tongue and does not
have a cleft chin. TTdd; Ttdd
d. What is the genotype for an individual who cannot roll his or her tongue and does not
have a cleft chin? ttdd
e. Suppose an individual is heterozygous for both traits (tongue rolling and cleft chin). What
is their genotype? TtDd
f. What are the genotypes of the gametes this person could produce? TD; Td; tD; td
Exercise 13
Using the answer you got in Exercise 12, question f, you can set up a Punnett square for a
dihybrid problem, crossing two individuals that are heterozygous for tongue rolling and cleft
chin. This square will have 16 boxes. Insert the parental genotypes on the top and left side of the
box below, and calculate the possible offspring genotypes. When you are finished answer the
questions below.
TD Td tD td
TD
Td
tD
td
a. What are the chances of having a child that is:
* TTDD = 1/16 = 0.0625
* TtDd = 4/16 = 0.25
* TtDD = 2/16 = 0.125
* ttDd = 2/16 = 0.125
b. What are the chances of having a child that has a cleft chin and cannot roll their tongue?
TTDD TTDd TtDD TtDd
TTDd TTdd TtDd Ttdd
TtDD TtDd ttDD ttDd
TtDd Ttdd ttDd ttdd
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3/16 = 0.1875
c. What are the chances of having a child that does not have a cleft chin and can roll their
tongue? 3/16 = 0.1875
d. What are the chances of having a child that cannot roll their tongue and does not have a
cleft chin? 1/16 = 0.0625
Exercise 14
Cystic fibrosis is the most common metabolic error in European-derived (“white”) populations,
where about 1 of every 1,600 being a carrier. Individuals born with cystic fibrosis are lacking an
enzyme that allows them to break down thick mucus in the lungs and makes them susceptible to
serious and often fatal lung infections. With aggressive treatment, most individuals may reach
adulthood; otherwise death from pneumonia is likely in childhood. There is no cure; however,
genetic engineering offers promise for these affected individuals. Cystic fibrosis is inherited as a
recessive, and individuals with one copy of the gene are carriers of the disease. The gene has
been located on chromosome 7.
a. What percentage of the gametes of a heterozygote individual will contain the recessive
allele? 50%
b. Draw a Punnett square crossing two individuals who are heterozygous for this trait.
(Using F for fibrosis, and f for no fibrosis)
F f
F FF Ff
f Ff ff
c. What percentage of the offspring will be affected with cystic fibrosis? 25%
d. What percentage of the offspring will be normal? 75%
e. What percentage of the offspring will also carry the trait? 50%
f. Is it possible for an affected child to be born to one healthy parent and one carrier? No,
both parents must carry the gene.
c. What are the chances of having a child that does not have a cleft chin and can roll their
tongue? 3/16 = 0.1875
d. What are the chances of having a child that cannot roll their tongue and does not have a
cleft chin? 1/16 = 0.0625
Exercise 14
Cystic fibrosis is the most common metabolic error in European-derived (“white”) populations,
where about 1 of every 1,600 being a carrier. Individuals born with cystic fibrosis are lacking an
enzyme that allows them to break down thick mucus in the lungs and makes them susceptible to
serious and often fatal lung infections. With aggressive treatment, most individuals may reach
adulthood; otherwise death from pneumonia is likely in childhood. There is no cure; however,
genetic engineering offers promise for these affected individuals. Cystic fibrosis is inherited as a
recessive, and individuals with one copy of the gene are carriers of the disease. The gene has
been located on chromosome 7.
a. What percentage of the gametes of a heterozygote individual will contain the recessive
allele? 50%
b. Draw a Punnett square crossing two individuals who are heterozygous for this trait.
(Using F for fibrosis, and f for no fibrosis)
F f
F FF Ff
f Ff ff
c. What percentage of the offspring will be affected with cystic fibrosis? 25%
d. What percentage of the offspring will be normal? 75%
e. What percentage of the offspring will also carry the trait? 50%
f. Is it possible for an affected child to be born to one healthy parent and one carrier? No,
both parents must carry the gene.
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Distinguish between incomplete dominance and codominance.
Codominant alleles are both fully expressed in the phenotype (e.g. red + white = red and
white); Incomplete dominant alleles have a “blended” appearance in the phenotype (e.g. red
+ white = pink).
2. What does it mean when we say that a trait is sex-linked?
It is on one of the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome.
3. How might the Law of Independent Assortment be violated if two traits were on the same
chromosome?
Genes found on the same chromosome, especially if they are near each other (e.g. on the
same arm) will usually be inherited together.
4. Mendel’s pea plants carry two alleles of the gene for seed shape, R for round seeds and r for
wrinkled seeds. Consider the following genotypes in the table below, and indicate the
possible genotypes of the gametes.
Diploid genotype Gamete genotype Gamete genotype
RR R R
Rr R r
rr r r
5. In the chart below, provide the diploid genotypes that would occur by fusion of the following
genotypes.
Gamete genotype Gamete genotype Diploid genotype
r r rr
R r Rr
R R RR
1. Distinguish between incomplete dominance and codominance.
Codominant alleles are both fully expressed in the phenotype (e.g. red + white = red and
white); Incomplete dominant alleles have a “blended” appearance in the phenotype (e.g. red
+ white = pink).
2. What does it mean when we say that a trait is sex-linked?
It is on one of the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome.
3. How might the Law of Independent Assortment be violated if two traits were on the same
chromosome?
Genes found on the same chromosome, especially if they are near each other (e.g. on the
same arm) will usually be inherited together.
4. Mendel’s pea plants carry two alleles of the gene for seed shape, R for round seeds and r for
wrinkled seeds. Consider the following genotypes in the table below, and indicate the
possible genotypes of the gametes.
Diploid genotype Gamete genotype Gamete genotype
RR R R
Rr R r
rr r r
5. In the chart below, provide the diploid genotypes that would occur by fusion of the following
genotypes.
Gamete genotype Gamete genotype Diploid genotype
r r rr
R r Rr
R R RR
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6. For the following problem, state whether the genotype is homozygous and heterozygous and
whether the plant would have round or wrinkled seeds.
* RR Homozygous dominant - round
* Rr Heterozygous - round
* rr Homozygous recessive - wrinkled
7. Considering that the allele for tall plants is dominant to the allele for short plants, and using T
for tall and t for short, draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous tall plant and a short
plant.
T t
t Tt tt
t Tt tt
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is tall? 50% Why? Any plant with a T will be tall
* What percentage of the offspring is short? 50% Why? Plants with two t (tt) will be short
8. Considering that the allele in humans for tongue rolling is dominant to the allele for non-
rolling and using R for rolling and r for non-rolling, draw a Punnett Square crossing a
heterozygous roller and a homozygous roller.
R R
R RR RR
r Rr Rr
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring can roll their tongue? 100% Why? Any plant with a R
will be a roller
whether the plant would have round or wrinkled seeds.
* RR Homozygous dominant - round
* Rr Heterozygous - round
* rr Homozygous recessive - wrinkled
7. Considering that the allele for tall plants is dominant to the allele for short plants, and using T
for tall and t for short, draw a Punnett square crossing a heterozygous tall plant and a short
plant.
T t
t Tt tt
t Tt tt
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is tall? 50% Why? Any plant with a T will be tall
* What percentage of the offspring is short? 50% Why? Plants with two t (tt) will be short
8. Considering that the allele in humans for tongue rolling is dominant to the allele for non-
rolling and using R for rolling and r for non-rolling, draw a Punnett Square crossing a
heterozygous roller and a homozygous roller.
R R
R RR RR
r Rr Rr
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 50%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring can roll their tongue? 100% Why? Any plant with a R
will be a roller
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* What percentage of the offspring cannot roll their tongue? 0% Why? No individuals are
rr
9. Considering that the allele for a dimpled chin is dominant to the allele for a non-dimpled
chin, and using D for dimpled and d for non-dimpled, draw a Punnett square crossing a
homozygous person with a dimpled chin and a person without a dimpled chin.
D D
d Dd Dd
d Dd Dd
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 100%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring has a dimpled chin? 100% Why? Any person with a D
will be dimpled
* What percentage of the offspring does not have a dimpled chin? 0% Why? No
individuals are dd
10. Working with the dihybrid cross you did in Exercise 13 answer the following questions:
* What are the chances of having child that is ttdd? 1/16 0.0625
* What are the chances of having child that is ttDD? 1/16 0.0625
* What are the chances of having child that is Ttdd? 2/16 0.125
* What are the chances of having a child that has a cleft chin and can roll their tongue?
9/16 0.5625
11. Using the chart below, copy your personal phenotype information collected in class in the
first column and ask or examine your parents for their phenotype for each trait. Try and
determine your genotype. (If you are unable to determine your parents’ phenotype, you may
ask a friend or relative for their information).
*Student activity, no answer provided. This question will be answered differently for each
student.*
rr
9. Considering that the allele for a dimpled chin is dominant to the allele for a non-dimpled
chin, and using D for dimpled and d for non-dimpled, draw a Punnett square crossing a
homozygous person with a dimpled chin and a person without a dimpled chin.
D D
d Dd Dd
d Dd Dd
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous dominant? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring is heterozygous? 100%
* What percentage of the offspring is homozygous recessive? 0%
* What percentage of the offspring has a dimpled chin? 100% Why? Any person with a D
will be dimpled
* What percentage of the offspring does not have a dimpled chin? 0% Why? No
individuals are dd
10. Working with the dihybrid cross you did in Exercise 13 answer the following questions:
* What are the chances of having child that is ttdd? 1/16 0.0625
* What are the chances of having child that is ttDD? 1/16 0.0625
* What are the chances of having child that is Ttdd? 2/16 0.125
* What are the chances of having a child that has a cleft chin and can roll their tongue?
9/16 0.5625
11. Using the chart below, copy your personal phenotype information collected in class in the
first column and ask or examine your parents for their phenotype for each trait. Try and
determine your genotype. (If you are unable to determine your parents’ phenotype, you may
ask a friend or relative for their information).
*Student activity, no answer provided. This question will be answered differently for each
student.*
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Chapter 4: Human Variation: Blood Groups and Pedigree Analysis
Reading Questions
1. An example of codominance in the ABO blood group system is: (a) AO, (b) BB, (c) AB, (d)
OO.
2. Type A blood has: (a) A antigens, (b) B antigens, (c) neither A nor B antigens, (d) O
antigens.
3. Type O blood has which of the following possible genotypes? (a) AO, (b) BO, (c) OO, (d)
none of the above.
4. Individuals with a disorder that is inherited as a recessive will express the trait if they carry:
(a) two copies of the allele, (b) one copy of the allele, (c) the allele on their sex
chromosome, (d) the allele on the X chromosome.
5. In dominant inheritance, when one parent expresses the trait and the other does not, the
affected individual must be: (a) homozygous dominant, (b) homozygous recessive, (c)
heterozygous, (d) a female.
6. Females expressing sex-linked recessive traits like red-green colorblindness: (a) are
heterozygous, (b) must carry the trait on both of their X chromosomes, (c) only need to
have one x affected to express the trait, (d) express the trait when their only x is affected.
7. When a male’s single X chromosome is affected by a sex-linked trait, that male is
considered: (a) homozygous recessive, (b) homozygous dominant, (c) heterozygous, (d)
hemizygous.
8. True or False: Under the ABO blood group system, a universal donor may give blood to
anyone.
9. True or False: It is possible for dominant traits to skip a generation.
10. True or False: Individuals affected with a recessive condition may have phenotypically
normal parents.
Reading Questions
1. An example of codominance in the ABO blood group system is: (a) AO, (b) BB, (c) AB, (d)
OO.
2. Type A blood has: (a) A antigens, (b) B antigens, (c) neither A nor B antigens, (d) O
antigens.
3. Type O blood has which of the following possible genotypes? (a) AO, (b) BO, (c) OO, (d)
none of the above.
4. Individuals with a disorder that is inherited as a recessive will express the trait if they carry:
(a) two copies of the allele, (b) one copy of the allele, (c) the allele on their sex
chromosome, (d) the allele on the X chromosome.
5. In dominant inheritance, when one parent expresses the trait and the other does not, the
affected individual must be: (a) homozygous dominant, (b) homozygous recessive, (c)
heterozygous, (d) a female.
6. Females expressing sex-linked recessive traits like red-green colorblindness: (a) are
heterozygous, (b) must carry the trait on both of their X chromosomes, (c) only need to
have one x affected to express the trait, (d) express the trait when their only x is affected.
7. When a male’s single X chromosome is affected by a sex-linked trait, that male is
considered: (a) homozygous recessive, (b) homozygous dominant, (c) heterozygous, (d)
hemizygous.
8. True or False: Under the ABO blood group system, a universal donor may give blood to
anyone.
9. True or False: It is possible for dominant traits to skip a generation.
10. True or False: Individuals affected with a recessive condition may have phenotypically
normal parents.
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In-Class Exercises
Exercise 1
a. Can you list which of the genotypes above are homozygous? AA, BB, OO
b. Can you list which of the genotypes above are heterozygous? AO, BO, AB
Exercise 2
a. Can a person with type A blood receive a blood transfusion from a person with type O?
Yes
b. Can a person with type B blood receive a blood transfusion from a person with type AB?
No
c. Can a person with type O blood donate blood to a person who is type AB? Yes
d. Can a person with type B blood donate blood to a person who is type O? No
Exercise 3
You will be given a sample of artificial blood. Use the kit provided to determine the blood type
of your sample and answer the following questions.
*Student activity – answers will vary for each student.*
Exercise 4
A woman who is blood type B gives birth to a child who is blood type O. Using this information,
answer the questions and fill in the genotypes and phenotypes in the following table (part e).
a. What is the mother’s genotype? BO
b. The mother claims a certain man who is blood type B is the father of this child. Is this
possible? If so how, if not, why not? Yes, If he is BO
c. This woman has a second child who is blood type A. Is it possible that the same man is
the father of this child? No, the mother must donate her O allele and the father must
have an A allele (AA or AO), which the proposed father does not have if he is has type B
blood.
d. There is a third child in the house whose blood type is AB. The woman claims this is her
sister’s child, also fathered by the same man. Her sister’s blood type is O. What does this
Exercise 1
a. Can you list which of the genotypes above are homozygous? AA, BB, OO
b. Can you list which of the genotypes above are heterozygous? AO, BO, AB
Exercise 2
a. Can a person with type A blood receive a blood transfusion from a person with type O?
Yes
b. Can a person with type B blood receive a blood transfusion from a person with type AB?
No
c. Can a person with type O blood donate blood to a person who is type AB? Yes
d. Can a person with type B blood donate blood to a person who is type O? No
Exercise 3
You will be given a sample of artificial blood. Use the kit provided to determine the blood type
of your sample and answer the following questions.
*Student activity – answers will vary for each student.*
Exercise 4
A woman who is blood type B gives birth to a child who is blood type O. Using this information,
answer the questions and fill in the genotypes and phenotypes in the following table (part e).
a. What is the mother’s genotype? BO
b. The mother claims a certain man who is blood type B is the father of this child. Is this
possible? If so how, if not, why not? Yes, If he is BO
c. This woman has a second child who is blood type A. Is it possible that the same man is
the father of this child? No, the mother must donate her O allele and the father must
have an A allele (AA or AO), which the proposed father does not have if he is has type B
blood.
d. There is a third child in the house whose blood type is AB. The woman claims this is her
sister’s child, also fathered by the same man. Her sister’s blood type is O. What does this
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suggest to you? While the man could be the father of this child, the woman’s sister could
not be the mother. An individual who is type O cannot have a child who is type AB.
e. These two sisters have a brother who is blood type O. Based on the information you have
about these three siblings, determine the possible blood types of their parents.
Genotype Phenotype
Mother BO B
Sister OO O
Brother OO O
Child #1 OO O
Child #2 AO A
Child #3 AB AB
Proposed Father BO B
Grandmother *BO *B
Grandfather *?O *A, B, or O
*The Grandmother and Grandfather could be reversed.
Exercise 5
Practice drawing a simple pedigree. Sharon and John are married. They have three children, two
boys (Justin and Ian) and one girl (Dana). Justin is married with one daughter. Dana is married
with one daughter. Sharon is affected by a dominant trait, which is also seen in Justin and his
daughter. No other family members are affected. Write the genotypes for each member of the
family above their symbol.
Sharon: Dd John: dd Ian: dd
Justin: Dd Justin’s Wife: dd Justin’s daughter: Dd
Dana: dd Dana’s Husband: dd Dana’s daughter: dd
Exercise 6
The following is a sample pedigree for familial hypercholesterolemia. Note that all
affected individuals have at least one parent who is also affected by the disease. Working in
groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each individual in the pedigree.
You may write the answers below the symbols.
not be the mother. An individual who is type O cannot have a child who is type AB.
e. These two sisters have a brother who is blood type O. Based on the information you have
about these three siblings, determine the possible blood types of their parents.
Genotype Phenotype
Mother BO B
Sister OO O
Brother OO O
Child #1 OO O
Child #2 AO A
Child #3 AB AB
Proposed Father BO B
Grandmother *BO *B
Grandfather *?O *A, B, or O
*The Grandmother and Grandfather could be reversed.
Exercise 5
Practice drawing a simple pedigree. Sharon and John are married. They have three children, two
boys (Justin and Ian) and one girl (Dana). Justin is married with one daughter. Dana is married
with one daughter. Sharon is affected by a dominant trait, which is also seen in Justin and his
daughter. No other family members are affected. Write the genotypes for each member of the
family above their symbol.
Sharon: Dd John: dd Ian: dd
Justin: Dd Justin’s Wife: dd Justin’s daughter: Dd
Dana: dd Dana’s Husband: dd Dana’s daughter: dd
Exercise 6
The following is a sample pedigree for familial hypercholesterolemia. Note that all
affected individuals have at least one parent who is also affected by the disease. Working in
groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each individual in the pedigree.
You may write the answers below the symbols.
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*Note: Pedigree uses D for the dominant allele and d for the recessive allele. Trait is dominant.
May also use H for dominant and h for recessive.*
Exercise 7
The following is a sample pedigree for a family affected by albinism. Note that most affected
individuals have parents who are phenotypically normal and that the parents must be carriers of
the trait. Working in groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each
individual in the pedigree.
*Note: Pedigree uses R for the dominant allele and r for the recessive allele. Trait is recessive.
May also use A for dominant and a for recessive.*
May also use H for dominant and h for recessive.*
Exercise 7
The following is a sample pedigree for a family affected by albinism. Note that most affected
individuals have parents who are phenotypically normal and that the parents must be carriers of
the trait. Working in groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each
individual in the pedigree.
*Note: Pedigree uses R for the dominant allele and r for the recessive allele. Trait is recessive.
May also use A for dominant and a for recessive.*
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Exercise 8
Using the sample pedigree exhibiting hemophilia in the British royal family (Stanford et
al. 2006), working in groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each
named individual in the pedigree. Remember to label the females as XX and the males as XY.
Affected X chromosomes may be notated as Xh.
Albert: XY
Victoria: XXh
Empress Victoria: XX
Kaiser Wilhelm II: XY
Edward VII: XY
George V: XY
Alice of Hesse: XXh
Princess Irene: XXh
Fredrick: XhY
(Alexandra) Alix: XXh
Helena Princess Christian: XX
Leopold Duke of Albany: XhY
Alice of Athlone: XXh
Beatrice: XXh
Victoria Eugenie: XXh
Leopold: XY
Maurice: XhY
Post-Lab Questions
1. Using the information from Exercise 3, and the blood typing you did in class, can you
determine at least a partial genotype for the parents of the individual whose blood you tested?
Yes – (it will depend upon the answer to Exercise 3, but at least a partial can be determined
for all blood types)
Using the sample pedigree exhibiting hemophilia in the British royal family (Stanford et
al. 2006), working in groups, or guided by your instructor, determine the genotypes for each
named individual in the pedigree. Remember to label the females as XX and the males as XY.
Affected X chromosomes may be notated as Xh.
Albert: XY
Victoria: XXh
Empress Victoria: XX
Kaiser Wilhelm II: XY
Edward VII: XY
George V: XY
Alice of Hesse: XXh
Princess Irene: XXh
Fredrick: XhY
(Alexandra) Alix: XXh
Helena Princess Christian: XX
Leopold Duke of Albany: XhY
Alice of Athlone: XXh
Beatrice: XXh
Victoria Eugenie: XXh
Leopold: XY
Maurice: XhY
Post-Lab Questions
1. Using the information from Exercise 3, and the blood typing you did in class, can you
determine at least a partial genotype for the parents of the individual whose blood you tested?
Yes – (it will depend upon the answer to Exercise 3, but at least a partial can be determined
for all blood types)
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Anthropology