Nursing Research In Canada: Methods, Critical Appraisal, And Utilization, 3rd Canadian Edition Lecture Notes
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The Role of Research in Nursing
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 examines the role of research in a practice discipline; the historical foundations of nursing
research; the relationships among research, education, and practice; the roles of professional nurses
in the research process according to their level of educational preparation; and future trends and
priorities for nursing research. It introduces students to their role as research consumers and high-
lights how consumers of research contribute to the development of evidence-informed nursing
practice.
The authors emphasize that baccalaureate graduates must be able to read research critically and
determine when a body of research is ready for use in practice. Nurses prepared at the master’s or
doctoral level conduct research and use its findings.
In general, this chapter raises students’ awareness of their role as consumers of nursing research.
It also fosters an appreciation of the historical evolution of nursing research, that is, where nursing
has been and where it is projected to be in terms of research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
• State the significance of research to the practice of nursing.
• Identify the role of the consumer of nursing research.
• Discuss the differences in trends within nursing research in Canada.
• Describe how research, education, and practice are related to one another.
• Evaluate the nurse’s role in the research process as it relates to the nurse’s level of education.
• Identify future trends in nursing research.
• Formulate the priorities for nursing research in the twenty-first century.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 1
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 examines the role of research in a practice discipline; the historical foundations of nursing
research; the relationships among research, education, and practice; the roles of professional nurses
in the research process according to their level of educational preparation; and future trends and
priorities for nursing research. It introduces students to their role as research consumers and high-
lights how consumers of research contribute to the development of evidence-informed nursing
practice.
The authors emphasize that baccalaureate graduates must be able to read research critically and
determine when a body of research is ready for use in practice. Nurses prepared at the master’s or
doctoral level conduct research and use its findings.
In general, this chapter raises students’ awareness of their role as consumers of nursing research.
It also fosters an appreciation of the historical evolution of nursing research, that is, where nursing
has been and where it is projected to be in terms of research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
• State the significance of research to the practice of nursing.
• Identify the role of the consumer of nursing research.
• Discuss the differences in trends within nursing research in Canada.
• Describe how research, education, and practice are related to one another.
• Evaluate the nurse’s role in the research process as it relates to the nurse’s level of education.
• Identify future trends in nursing research.
• Formulate the priorities for nursing research in the twenty-first century.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 1
The Role of Research in Nursing
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 examines the role of research in a practice discipline; the historical foundations of nursing
research; the relationships among research, education, and practice; the roles of professional nurses
in the research process according to their level of educational preparation; and future trends and
priorities for nursing research. It introduces students to their role as research consumers and high-
lights how consumers of research contribute to the development of evidence-informed nursing
practice.
The authors emphasize that baccalaureate graduates must be able to read research critically and
determine when a body of research is ready for use in practice. Nurses prepared at the master’s or
doctoral level conduct research and use its findings.
In general, this chapter raises students’ awareness of their role as consumers of nursing research.
It also fosters an appreciation of the historical evolution of nursing research, that is, where nursing
has been and where it is projected to be in terms of research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
• State the significance of research to the practice of nursing.
• Identify the role of the consumer of nursing research.
• Discuss the differences in trends within nursing research in Canada.
• Describe how research, education, and practice are related to one another.
• Evaluate the nurse’s role in the research process as it relates to the nurse’s level of education.
• Identify future trends in nursing research.
• Formulate the priorities for nursing research in the twenty-first century.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 1
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 examines the role of research in a practice discipline; the historical foundations of nursing
research; the relationships among research, education, and practice; the roles of professional nurses
in the research process according to their level of educational preparation; and future trends and
priorities for nursing research. It introduces students to their role as research consumers and high-
lights how consumers of research contribute to the development of evidence-informed nursing
practice.
The authors emphasize that baccalaureate graduates must be able to read research critically and
determine when a body of research is ready for use in practice. Nurses prepared at the master’s or
doctoral level conduct research and use its findings.
In general, this chapter raises students’ awareness of their role as consumers of nursing research.
It also fosters an appreciation of the historical evolution of nursing research, that is, where nursing
has been and where it is projected to be in terms of research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
• State the significance of research to the practice of nursing.
• Identify the role of the consumer of nursing research.
• Discuss the differences in trends within nursing research in Canada.
• Describe how research, education, and practice are related to one another.
• Evaluate the nurse’s role in the research process as it relates to the nurse’s level of education.
• Identify future trends in nursing research.
• Formulate the priorities for nursing research in the twenty-first century.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 1
2 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing
TEACHING STRATEGIES
As a teacher of nursing students, you can facilitate
your students’ awareness of, interest in, and ap-
preciation of research. The teaching strategies
identified in this section are intended to assist you
in helping students become aware of nursing re-
search and its relationship to clinical practice.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following lists of questions are intended to
facilitate review of chapter content and to foster
the critical thinking skills needed to fulfill the role
of research consumer:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is nursing research?
• What is the meaning of the term consumer?
• What is the research role of the registered
nurse? How does this role compare with
that of a nurse who has a master’s degree?
A doctorate?
• How would you define evidence-informed
practice?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does nursing research differ from the
research of other disciplines?
• What does it mean to be a consumer of nursing
research?
• How does nursing research contribute to the
development of clinical skills, to the overall
practice of nursing, and to professionalism?
2. Allaying Students’ Anxiety
As stated in the Introduction to the Instructor’s
Manual, students often approach a course in re-
search with preconceived notions about the na-
ture and difficulty of the subject. Therefore, you
should establish a nonthreatening environment. It
may help to begin by encouraging students to ex-
press their concerns and anxieties about the sub-
ject matter. Sharing the responses of students in
your other classes can initiate such a discussion.
This strategy helps students realize that they are
not alone in their feelings and that you as the
teacher are aware of their needs and are concerned
about them. This type of open discussion also can
give you an idea of students’ learning needs and
major areas of potential difficulty. Through this
discussion, misconceptions can be addressed and
clarifi ed right away.
3. Making Research Relevant to Practice
If research concepts have not been incorporated
in previous courses, or even if they have, students
may not be aware of the relationship between
research and practice. A variety of teaching strat-
egies can be used to facilitate this awareness.
Students have found the use of numerous clin-
ical examples during discussions of the role of
research in nursing to be particularly enriching.
For example, you might ask your students
about the techniques they use to give intramuscu-
lar injections. After several students describe their
technique(s), you can ask them to discuss where
they obtained their knowledge and whether they
believe these techniques are valid. You might then
explain that, although research supporting the
theoretical principles related to the administration
of intramuscular injections has existed for 20 years,
findings have not been universally applied in nurs-
ing practice. More specifically, the effect of pos-
itioning (internal rotation of the femur for giving
injections in the dorsogluteal site) was first stud-
ied by nursing in 1979 by Kruszewski, Lang, and
Johnson. Their study, titled “Effect of positioning
on discomfort from intramuscular injections in
the dorsogluteal site,” supported the hypothesis
that “Patients who are placed in prone positions
with femurs internally rotated while receiving an
intramuscular injection in the dorsogluteal site will
report less intense discomfort than patients placed
in prone positions with femurs externally rotated”
(Kruszewski, Lang, & Johnson, pp. 103–105).
TEACHING STRATEGIES
As a teacher of nursing students, you can facilitate
your students’ awareness of, interest in, and ap-
preciation of research. The teaching strategies
identified in this section are intended to assist you
in helping students become aware of nursing re-
search and its relationship to clinical practice.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following lists of questions are intended to
facilitate review of chapter content and to foster
the critical thinking skills needed to fulfill the role
of research consumer:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is nursing research?
• What is the meaning of the term consumer?
• What is the research role of the registered
nurse? How does this role compare with
that of a nurse who has a master’s degree?
A doctorate?
• How would you define evidence-informed
practice?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does nursing research differ from the
research of other disciplines?
• What does it mean to be a consumer of nursing
research?
• How does nursing research contribute to the
development of clinical skills, to the overall
practice of nursing, and to professionalism?
2. Allaying Students’ Anxiety
As stated in the Introduction to the Instructor’s
Manual, students often approach a course in re-
search with preconceived notions about the na-
ture and difficulty of the subject. Therefore, you
should establish a nonthreatening environment. It
may help to begin by encouraging students to ex-
press their concerns and anxieties about the sub-
ject matter. Sharing the responses of students in
your other classes can initiate such a discussion.
This strategy helps students realize that they are
not alone in their feelings and that you as the
teacher are aware of their needs and are concerned
about them. This type of open discussion also can
give you an idea of students’ learning needs and
major areas of potential difficulty. Through this
discussion, misconceptions can be addressed and
clarifi ed right away.
3. Making Research Relevant to Practice
If research concepts have not been incorporated
in previous courses, or even if they have, students
may not be aware of the relationship between
research and practice. A variety of teaching strat-
egies can be used to facilitate this awareness.
Students have found the use of numerous clin-
ical examples during discussions of the role of
research in nursing to be particularly enriching.
For example, you might ask your students
about the techniques they use to give intramuscu-
lar injections. After several students describe their
technique(s), you can ask them to discuss where
they obtained their knowledge and whether they
believe these techniques are valid. You might then
explain that, although research supporting the
theoretical principles related to the administration
of intramuscular injections has existed for 20 years,
findings have not been universally applied in nurs-
ing practice. More specifically, the effect of pos-
itioning (internal rotation of the femur for giving
injections in the dorsogluteal site) was first stud-
ied by nursing in 1979 by Kruszewski, Lang, and
Johnson. Their study, titled “Effect of positioning
on discomfort from intramuscular injections in
the dorsogluteal site,” supported the hypothesis
that “Patients who are placed in prone positions
with femurs internally rotated while receiving an
intramuscular injection in the dorsogluteal site will
report less intense discomfort than patients placed
in prone positions with femurs externally rotated”
(Kruszewski, Lang, & Johnson, pp. 103–105).
2 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing
TEACHING STRATEGIES
As a teacher of nursing students, you can facilitate
your students’ awareness of, interest in, and ap-
preciation of research. The teaching strategies
identified in this section are intended to assist you
in helping students become aware of nursing re-
search and its relationship to clinical practice.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following lists of questions are intended to
facilitate review of chapter content and to foster
the critical thinking skills needed to fulfill the role
of research consumer:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is nursing research?
• What is the meaning of the term consumer?
• What is the research role of the registered
nurse? How does this role compare with
that of a nurse who has a master’s degree?
A doctorate?
• How would you define evidence-informed
practice?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does nursing research differ from the
research of other disciplines?
• What does it mean to be a consumer of nursing
research?
• How does nursing research contribute to the
development of clinical skills, to the overall
practice of nursing, and to professionalism?
2. Allaying Students’ Anxiety
As stated in the Introduction to the Instructor’s
Manual, students often approach a course in re-
search with preconceived notions about the na-
ture and difficulty of the subject. Therefore, you
should establish a nonthreatening environment. It
may help to begin by encouraging students to ex-
press their concerns and anxieties about the sub-
ject matter. Sharing the responses of students in
your other classes can initiate such a discussion.
This strategy helps students realize that they are
not alone in their feelings and that you as the
teacher are aware of their needs and are concerned
about them. This type of open discussion also can
give you an idea of students’ learning needs and
major areas of potential difficulty. Through this
discussion, misconceptions can be addressed and
clarifi ed right away.
3. Making Research Relevant to Practice
If research concepts have not been incorporated
in previous courses, or even if they have, students
may not be aware of the relationship between
research and practice. A variety of teaching strat-
egies can be used to facilitate this awareness.
Students have found the use of numerous clin-
ical examples during discussions of the role of
research in nursing to be particularly enriching.
For example, you might ask your students
about the techniques they use to give intramuscu-
lar injections. After several students describe their
technique(s), you can ask them to discuss where
they obtained their knowledge and whether they
believe these techniques are valid. You might then
explain that, although research supporting the
theoretical principles related to the administration
of intramuscular injections has existed for 20 years,
findings have not been universally applied in nurs-
ing practice. More specifically, the effect of pos-
itioning (internal rotation of the femur for giving
injections in the dorsogluteal site) was first stud-
ied by nursing in 1979 by Kruszewski, Lang, and
Johnson. Their study, titled “Effect of positioning
on discomfort from intramuscular injections in
the dorsogluteal site,” supported the hypothesis
that “Patients who are placed in prone positions
with femurs internally rotated while receiving an
intramuscular injection in the dorsogluteal site will
report less intense discomfort than patients placed
in prone positions with femurs externally rotated”
(Kruszewski, Lang, & Johnson, pp. 103–105).
TEACHING STRATEGIES
As a teacher of nursing students, you can facilitate
your students’ awareness of, interest in, and ap-
preciation of research. The teaching strategies
identified in this section are intended to assist you
in helping students become aware of nursing re-
search and its relationship to clinical practice.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following lists of questions are intended to
facilitate review of chapter content and to foster
the critical thinking skills needed to fulfill the role
of research consumer:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is nursing research?
• What is the meaning of the term consumer?
• What is the research role of the registered
nurse? How does this role compare with
that of a nurse who has a master’s degree?
A doctorate?
• How would you define evidence-informed
practice?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does nursing research differ from the
research of other disciplines?
• What does it mean to be a consumer of nursing
research?
• How does nursing research contribute to the
development of clinical skills, to the overall
practice of nursing, and to professionalism?
2. Allaying Students’ Anxiety
As stated in the Introduction to the Instructor’s
Manual, students often approach a course in re-
search with preconceived notions about the na-
ture and difficulty of the subject. Therefore, you
should establish a nonthreatening environment. It
may help to begin by encouraging students to ex-
press their concerns and anxieties about the sub-
ject matter. Sharing the responses of students in
your other classes can initiate such a discussion.
This strategy helps students realize that they are
not alone in their feelings and that you as the
teacher are aware of their needs and are concerned
about them. This type of open discussion also can
give you an idea of students’ learning needs and
major areas of potential difficulty. Through this
discussion, misconceptions can be addressed and
clarifi ed right away.
3. Making Research Relevant to Practice
If research concepts have not been incorporated
in previous courses, or even if they have, students
may not be aware of the relationship between
research and practice. A variety of teaching strat-
egies can be used to facilitate this awareness.
Students have found the use of numerous clin-
ical examples during discussions of the role of
research in nursing to be particularly enriching.
For example, you might ask your students
about the techniques they use to give intramuscu-
lar injections. After several students describe their
technique(s), you can ask them to discuss where
they obtained their knowledge and whether they
believe these techniques are valid. You might then
explain that, although research supporting the
theoretical principles related to the administration
of intramuscular injections has existed for 20 years,
findings have not been universally applied in nurs-
ing practice. More specifically, the effect of pos-
itioning (internal rotation of the femur for giving
injections in the dorsogluteal site) was first stud-
ied by nursing in 1979 by Kruszewski, Lang, and
Johnson. Their study, titled “Effect of positioning
on discomfort from intramuscular injections in
the dorsogluteal site,” supported the hypothesis
that “Patients who are placed in prone positions
with femurs internally rotated while receiving an
intramuscular injection in the dorsogluteal site will
report less intense discomfort than patients placed
in prone positions with femurs externally rotated”
(Kruszewski, Lang, & Johnson, pp. 103–105).
CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing 3
In 1982, Rettig and Southby supported the
effect of proper positioning in reducing discom-
fort from dorsogluteal injections. In more recent
research, Cocoman and Murray (2008) completed
a comprehensive review of the practice for intra-
muscular injections and discuss the often contra-
dictory available evidence.
4. Involving Guest Speakers
You may want to invite a guest speaker who has
a background in historical research or an in-depth
knowledge of nursing history to address the his-
torical evolution of nursing research. Such a per-
son can make the subject matter come alive by,
for example, interspersing little-known anecdotes
about prominent nurses involved in the develop-
ment of nursing research.
5. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. The Evolution of Nursing Research:
A Game
The purpose of this learning activity is to inject
some spice into what students generally perceive
as a dry subject: the evolution of nursing research.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Relate an historical event to its time and place
or person.
• Recall milestones in the evolution of nursing
research.
Directions for implementation. This activity is a
modified version of Jeopardy, a popular TV game
show. Be sure to explain clearly how the game
will be played before starting. Depending on the
number of students in your class, you may have all
students participate at once in teams or have some
students act as the “audience” while others take the
role of contestants. Form a panel of three students
or three teams of students (a team may consist of
two to four players). You will need index cards, four
bells or buzzers, and a score sheet with marker or
board with chalk. Create three sets of index cards:
set 1 will contain the years that various historical
events took place; set 2 will contain the events
themselves; and set 3 will contain the places, per-
sons, or outcomes related to those events. Each set
of cards should be a different colour. Key the cards
in each set to their related cards in the other two
sets by marking them with the same numbers. As
an example, in 1932 (date on card #23 in set 1) the
Weir report was published (event on card #23 in set
2) and recommended changes in nursing education
(outcome on card #23 in set 3). The instructor acts
as game show host. Contestants take turns picking
one of the three categories. The instructor holds up
and reads a card from that pile. Contestants then
have to provide an answer in the form of a ques-
tion from the other two sets. For example, if the
contestant picked the card from set 1 with the date
“1932,” he or she could correctly respond in ques-
tion form with the following: “In what year was the
Weir report published?” If the contestant picked the
card from set 3 with the outcome “Recommended
changes in nursing education,” the response might
be: “What was the recommendation from the Weir
report?
The game begins with the instructor picking a
card and reading it. The contestant or team who
presses the buzzer (or rings the bell) first is given
the fi rst chance to respond. If that contestant or
team provides the correct answer, another card is
chosen and play continues. If, on the other hand,
the contestant or team who buzzes in first gives an
incorrect answer, the other contestants or teams
are given a chance to answer correctly. Once the
question is answered correctly, the game con-
tinues as before. The instructor or another student
may keep score on a flip chart or board. Score 1
point for each correct answer. The instructor and
students should decide together on a prize before
beginning the game.
In 1982, Rettig and Southby supported the
effect of proper positioning in reducing discom-
fort from dorsogluteal injections. In more recent
research, Cocoman and Murray (2008) completed
a comprehensive review of the practice for intra-
muscular injections and discuss the often contra-
dictory available evidence.
4. Involving Guest Speakers
You may want to invite a guest speaker who has
a background in historical research or an in-depth
knowledge of nursing history to address the his-
torical evolution of nursing research. Such a per-
son can make the subject matter come alive by,
for example, interspersing little-known anecdotes
about prominent nurses involved in the develop-
ment of nursing research.
5. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. The Evolution of Nursing Research:
A Game
The purpose of this learning activity is to inject
some spice into what students generally perceive
as a dry subject: the evolution of nursing research.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Relate an historical event to its time and place
or person.
• Recall milestones in the evolution of nursing
research.
Directions for implementation. This activity is a
modified version of Jeopardy, a popular TV game
show. Be sure to explain clearly how the game
will be played before starting. Depending on the
number of students in your class, you may have all
students participate at once in teams or have some
students act as the “audience” while others take the
role of contestants. Form a panel of three students
or three teams of students (a team may consist of
two to four players). You will need index cards, four
bells or buzzers, and a score sheet with marker or
board with chalk. Create three sets of index cards:
set 1 will contain the years that various historical
events took place; set 2 will contain the events
themselves; and set 3 will contain the places, per-
sons, or outcomes related to those events. Each set
of cards should be a different colour. Key the cards
in each set to their related cards in the other two
sets by marking them with the same numbers. As
an example, in 1932 (date on card #23 in set 1) the
Weir report was published (event on card #23 in set
2) and recommended changes in nursing education
(outcome on card #23 in set 3). The instructor acts
as game show host. Contestants take turns picking
one of the three categories. The instructor holds up
and reads a card from that pile. Contestants then
have to provide an answer in the form of a ques-
tion from the other two sets. For example, if the
contestant picked the card from set 1 with the date
“1932,” he or she could correctly respond in ques-
tion form with the following: “In what year was the
Weir report published?” If the contestant picked the
card from set 3 with the outcome “Recommended
changes in nursing education,” the response might
be: “What was the recommendation from the Weir
report?
The game begins with the instructor picking a
card and reading it. The contestant or team who
presses the buzzer (or rings the bell) first is given
the fi rst chance to respond. If that contestant or
team provides the correct answer, another card is
chosen and play continues. If, on the other hand,
the contestant or team who buzzes in first gives an
incorrect answer, the other contestants or teams
are given a chance to answer correctly. Once the
question is answered correctly, the game con-
tinues as before. The instructor or another student
may keep score on a flip chart or board. Score 1
point for each correct answer. The instructor and
students should decide together on a prize before
beginning the game.
Loading page 4...
4 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing
BOX 1-1
BOX 1-1
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Theoretical Framework
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 2 introduces students to the nature of knowledge, both from nursing and other disciplines,
discussed within the context of worldview. Philosophies of research and science are shown to
form the basis for beliefs and assumptions that guide the selected approach to studying research
problems. The link to research is demonstrated through a critical thinking decision path.
Next, students are introduced to frameworks for research, providing at the outset an example
of a clinical situation that clearly shows the relationship between practice and research. This is fol-
lowed by a section that illustrates how theory links research and practice. Inductive and deductive
approaches to science are described, using the earlier clinical example. Models are described as
a way to connect concepts and develop hypotheses. Reference is made to the idea of a “ladder
of abstraction” that can be used to gain a research perspective and relate concepts, theories, and
frameworks.
Theory is defined, and the purpose of a theoretical rationale is conveyed as a context in which
to examine problems. More specifically addressed are types of theories—grand, midrange, and
microrange—to introduce readers to theory as a framework to answer nursing questions. A focus
on nursing knowledge and nursing theory development can provide students with the frame of
reference that is so necessary to help nursing continue to define what it is, how it is unique, and
how it differs from other disciplines.
Conceptual and theoretical frameworks are differentiated, and conceptual and operational def-
initions are illustrated for six different concepts. Criteria for critiquing a theoretical framework are
identified to assist students in the development of their roles as research consumers.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 2 introduces students to the nature of knowledge, both from nursing and other disciplines,
discussed within the context of worldview. Philosophies of research and science are shown to
form the basis for beliefs and assumptions that guide the selected approach to studying research
problems. The link to research is demonstrated through a critical thinking decision path.
Next, students are introduced to frameworks for research, providing at the outset an example
of a clinical situation that clearly shows the relationship between practice and research. This is fol-
lowed by a section that illustrates how theory links research and practice. Inductive and deductive
approaches to science are described, using the earlier clinical example. Models are described as
a way to connect concepts and develop hypotheses. Reference is made to the idea of a “ladder
of abstraction” that can be used to gain a research perspective and relate concepts, theories, and
frameworks.
Theory is defined, and the purpose of a theoretical rationale is conveyed as a context in which
to examine problems. More specifically addressed are types of theories—grand, midrange, and
microrange—to introduce readers to theory as a framework to answer nursing questions. A focus
on nursing knowledge and nursing theory development can provide students with the frame of
reference that is so necessary to help nursing continue to define what it is, how it is unique, and
how it differs from other disciplines.
Conceptual and theoretical frameworks are differentiated, and conceptual and operational def-
initions are illustrated for six different concepts. Criteria for critiquing a theoretical framework are
identified to assist students in the development of their roles as research consumers.
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 2
Loading page 6...
6 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Define key concepts in the philosophy of science.
• Identify and differentiate between theoretical/empirical, aesthetic, personal, sociopolitical, and
ethical ways of knowing.
• Identify assumptions underlying the post-positivist, critical, and interpretive/constructivist views of
research.
• Compare inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Differentiate between conceptual and theoretical frameworks.
• Describe how a framework guides research.
• Differentiate between conceptual and operational definitions.
• Describe the relationships among theory, research, and practice.
• Discuss levels of abstraction related to frameworks guiding research.
• Describe the points of critical appraisal used to evaluate the appropriateness, cohesiveness, and
consistency of a framework guiding research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Define key concepts in the philosophy of science.
• Identify and differentiate between theoretical/empirical, aesthetic, personal, sociopolitical, and
ethical ways of knowing.
• Identify assumptions underlying the post-positivist, critical, and interpretive/constructivist views of
research.
• Compare inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Differentiate between conceptual and theoretical frameworks.
• Describe how a framework guides research.
• Differentiate between conceptual and operational definitions.
• Describe the relationships among theory, research, and practice.
• Discuss levels of abstraction related to frameworks guiding research.
• Describe the points of critical appraisal used to evaluate the appropriateness, cohesiveness, and
consistency of a framework guiding research.
Loading page 7...
CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework 7
TEACHING STRATEGIES
The research consumer role should be expanded
in discussions about the development of nurs-
ing knowledge. At this point, students can begin
to engage actively in the consumer role to “test
the waters” in relation to the critical appraisal of
knowledge derived from various sources.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
a. Stimulating Critical Thinking
The following questions may serve to stimulate
critical thinking about material related to various
sources of knowledge:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
What are the two main paradigms of research?
• What are the major sources of human
knowledge?
• How do qualitative and quantitative approaches
to research differ?
• How are practice and research linked?
• What is the difference between induction and
deduction?
• How would you define model?
• How would you define theory?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• What are your beliefs about nursing? About
health? About human behaviour? Give ex-
amples of how you think these beliefs influ-
ence your clinical practice.
• What scientific paradigm do you feel most
comfortable with? Why do you feel that way?
• Consider a nursing intervention you have used.
On what assumptions is it based?
• What are your beliefs about nursing? About
health? About human behaviour? Give ex-
amples of how you think these beliefs might
influence your approach to research.
• How does theory influence the selection of
study design?
b. Use of Discussion Questions
The use of discussion questions can foster critical
thinking in relation to the parameters of a well-
supported, logical, and clearly articulated theor-
etical framework. It also can serve as a means by
which to meet the learning outcomes identified
for Chapter 2. The following questions can be
used to guide the discussion:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is the most prominent type of research
conducted until recently in nursing research?
• How would you differentiate a conceptual
from an operational definition?
• What is an assumption?
• What is the purpose of a theoretical frame-
work?
• What is the ladder of abstraction?
• What are the central phenomena of concern to
nursing?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• What nursing theories or models have you
heard or learned about?
• How useful are they for practice?
• How would you evaluate the appropriateness
of a particular operational definition?
• How are hypotheses related to models and
theories?
2. Using the Learner’s Previous
Experience
a. Everyday Experiences as a Consumer
A “warm-up” exercise used with beginning re-
search students involves an everyday experience,
for example, how one determines which sham-
poo to purchase. The purpose of this exercise
is to show that different sources of information
support how decisions are made. Students are
asked what factors go into making this decision,
and a list is written on a chalkboard, overhead
TEACHING STRATEGIES
The research consumer role should be expanded
in discussions about the development of nurs-
ing knowledge. At this point, students can begin
to engage actively in the consumer role to “test
the waters” in relation to the critical appraisal of
knowledge derived from various sources.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
a. Stimulating Critical Thinking
The following questions may serve to stimulate
critical thinking about material related to various
sources of knowledge:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
What are the two main paradigms of research?
• What are the major sources of human
knowledge?
• How do qualitative and quantitative approaches
to research differ?
• How are practice and research linked?
• What is the difference between induction and
deduction?
• How would you define model?
• How would you define theory?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• What are your beliefs about nursing? About
health? About human behaviour? Give ex-
amples of how you think these beliefs influ-
ence your clinical practice.
• What scientific paradigm do you feel most
comfortable with? Why do you feel that way?
• Consider a nursing intervention you have used.
On what assumptions is it based?
• What are your beliefs about nursing? About
health? About human behaviour? Give ex-
amples of how you think these beliefs might
influence your approach to research.
• How does theory influence the selection of
study design?
b. Use of Discussion Questions
The use of discussion questions can foster critical
thinking in relation to the parameters of a well-
supported, logical, and clearly articulated theor-
etical framework. It also can serve as a means by
which to meet the learning outcomes identified
for Chapter 2. The following questions can be
used to guide the discussion:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is the most prominent type of research
conducted until recently in nursing research?
• How would you differentiate a conceptual
from an operational definition?
• What is an assumption?
• What is the purpose of a theoretical frame-
work?
• What is the ladder of abstraction?
• What are the central phenomena of concern to
nursing?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• What nursing theories or models have you
heard or learned about?
• How useful are they for practice?
• How would you evaluate the appropriateness
of a particular operational definition?
• How are hypotheses related to models and
theories?
2. Using the Learner’s Previous
Experience
a. Everyday Experiences as a Consumer
A “warm-up” exercise used with beginning re-
search students involves an everyday experience,
for example, how one determines which sham-
poo to purchase. The purpose of this exercise
is to show that different sources of information
support how decisions are made. Students are
asked what factors go into making this decision,
and a list is written on a chalkboard, overhead
Loading page 8...
8 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework
projector, or easel. Common responses focus
on ingredients, media promotion, bottle colour,
smell, cost, and goal for use (e.g., dandruff re-
moval, conditioning). The use of personal know-
ledge derived from various sources to make deci-
sions is related to problem solving typically used
in research.
b. Comparing and Contrasting Processes Used
to Generate Knowledge
Although students can identify how they make
decisions in personal and clinical situations, they
are less familiar with the scientific or research
approach to generating knowledge. Comparing
and contrasting the research process with the
problem-solving process, which is familiar to
students, is a strategy we have used to facilitate
learning this content. An overhead or handout
can be used to show the steps typical of these
processes.
(1) First, the problem-solving process is presented
to students with specific emphasis on its
relation to the nursing process, as follows:
PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
• An obstacle to goal achievement is perceived.
• The underlying difficulty is identified and stated.
• Additional data are collected to validate the
difficulty.
• Possible solutions are suggested and evaluated.
• The most plausible solutions are attempted.
• The solution is evaluated in relation to elim-
ination of the original obstacle.
NURSING PROCESS
• An assessment of data is made.
• A patient health problem is identified, and a
nursing diagnosis is formulated.
• Additional data are collected to validate the
diagnosis.
• Possible interventions are suggested and
evaluated.
• The most plausible interventions are imple-
mented.
• The patient’s response is evaluated in relation
to his or her goals.
(2) Next, the following characteristics of the
scientific method and the problem-solving
process are compared and contrasted:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Control of extraneous influencing factors
• Problem solving
• Evidence based on “objective” reality
• Purpose—to make a contribution to general
knowledge
PROBLEM SOLVING
• No control of extraneous influencing factors
• Does not necessarily involve research
• May include subjective bias in investigation of
problem
• Concerned with a situation-specific solution
(3) Finally, a clinical situation is used to emphasize
the difference between problem solving and
using research to generate knowledge. For
example, a nurse may notice that Mrs. X has a
pressure ulcer. Her statement of the situation-
specific problem might be as follows: “How can
further development of the ulcer be prevented,
and how can the ulcer be healed?” If the nurse
observes the development of pressure ulcers in
many patients over time, he or she may ask the
research question, “What is the most effective
method for preventing pressure ulcers?”
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Identifying the Basis of Nursing Techniques/
Protocols
This learning activity provides students with an
opportunity to question the theoretical basis of
standard nursing interventions.
projector, or easel. Common responses focus
on ingredients, media promotion, bottle colour,
smell, cost, and goal for use (e.g., dandruff re-
moval, conditioning). The use of personal know-
ledge derived from various sources to make deci-
sions is related to problem solving typically used
in research.
b. Comparing and Contrasting Processes Used
to Generate Knowledge
Although students can identify how they make
decisions in personal and clinical situations, they
are less familiar with the scientific or research
approach to generating knowledge. Comparing
and contrasting the research process with the
problem-solving process, which is familiar to
students, is a strategy we have used to facilitate
learning this content. An overhead or handout
can be used to show the steps typical of these
processes.
(1) First, the problem-solving process is presented
to students with specific emphasis on its
relation to the nursing process, as follows:
PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
• An obstacle to goal achievement is perceived.
• The underlying difficulty is identified and stated.
• Additional data are collected to validate the
difficulty.
• Possible solutions are suggested and evaluated.
• The most plausible solutions are attempted.
• The solution is evaluated in relation to elim-
ination of the original obstacle.
NURSING PROCESS
• An assessment of data is made.
• A patient health problem is identified, and a
nursing diagnosis is formulated.
• Additional data are collected to validate the
diagnosis.
• Possible interventions are suggested and
evaluated.
• The most plausible interventions are imple-
mented.
• The patient’s response is evaluated in relation
to his or her goals.
(2) Next, the following characteristics of the
scientific method and the problem-solving
process are compared and contrasted:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Control of extraneous influencing factors
• Problem solving
• Evidence based on “objective” reality
• Purpose—to make a contribution to general
knowledge
PROBLEM SOLVING
• No control of extraneous influencing factors
• Does not necessarily involve research
• May include subjective bias in investigation of
problem
• Concerned with a situation-specific solution
(3) Finally, a clinical situation is used to emphasize
the difference between problem solving and
using research to generate knowledge. For
example, a nurse may notice that Mrs. X has a
pressure ulcer. Her statement of the situation-
specific problem might be as follows: “How can
further development of the ulcer be prevented,
and how can the ulcer be healed?” If the nurse
observes the development of pressure ulcers in
many patients over time, he or she may ask the
research question, “What is the most effective
method for preventing pressure ulcers?”
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Identifying the Basis of Nursing Techniques/
Protocols
This learning activity provides students with an
opportunity to question the theoretical basis of
standard nursing interventions.
Loading page 9...
CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework 9
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Based on the findings of this clinical exercise,
identify the bibliographical sources used in the
development of a selected nursing technique/
protocol.
• Determine whether or not the nursing tech-
nique/protocol was based on research.
• Suggest potential problems that may arise
from using non–research-based nursing tech-
niques/protocols.
Directions for implementation. Assign this exer-
cise at the beginning of the course. Have students
select a nursing protocol/technique (such as urinary
catheterization or intravenous maintenance) from
a clinical agency’s policy and procedure manual.
(Explain that they may obtain a copy of the select-
ed protocol from the agency’s nursing or nursing
education office.) Ask them to determine by whom
the protocol (procedure) was written. This infor-
mation may be obtained from an in-service edu-
cator or nursing administrator. Direct students to
request an interview with one or more individuals
who are involved in developing practice protocols
for the agency. The purpose of the interview is to
determine the basis for the existing protocol. Sug-
gested interview questions include the following:
• Can you explain how protocols are written in
your agency?
• On what information was this specific protocol
based?
• Are there any references that will give me a
better understanding of the rationale for the
practices included in the protocol?
After the interview, students should submit a brief
paper that describes the experience and states a
conclusion about whether or not the protocol is
research-based.
On completion of the clinical exercise, stu-
dents may also be asked to present their findings
in class.
During the discussion period it is important to
consider the following questions:
• Was any reference to research made, either by
the interviewee or in the protocol itself?
• If no reference is made or if the reference is a
non-research source, how does one know that
the selected technique/protocol is valid?
• What then is the basis of the selected practice?
• What is the value of research support of the se-
lected technique/protocol or for any technique/
protocol?
4. Using Diagrams to Show
Relationships
Students respond to visual representations be-
cause diagrams often clarify a potentially confus-
ing topic. When using examples in discussions
about concepts, theory, research, and hypothesis
development, you should map out specific rela-
tionships. Diagrams that clearly identify the vari-
ables being studied and the relationships between
them will enhance students’ understanding of the
process used to summarize literature and arrive
at hypotheses. In Figure 2-5 below, the link be-
tween the independent variables (stress, social
support, coping) and dependent variable (health
outcomes) is illustrated. The figure outlines the
process through which a supportive interven-
tion influences the health outcomes of homeless
youth. Locate the article and work with the stu-
dents to understand how the framework informed
the hypothesized relationships.
5. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
FORMULATING DEFINITIONS
This learning activity is designed to give stu-
dents experience in developing operational
definitions in an effort to increase their ability
to critique the definitions they read in research
reports.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Based on the findings of this clinical exercise,
identify the bibliographical sources used in the
development of a selected nursing technique/
protocol.
• Determine whether or not the nursing tech-
nique/protocol was based on research.
• Suggest potential problems that may arise
from using non–research-based nursing tech-
niques/protocols.
Directions for implementation. Assign this exer-
cise at the beginning of the course. Have students
select a nursing protocol/technique (such as urinary
catheterization or intravenous maintenance) from
a clinical agency’s policy and procedure manual.
(Explain that they may obtain a copy of the select-
ed protocol from the agency’s nursing or nursing
education office.) Ask them to determine by whom
the protocol (procedure) was written. This infor-
mation may be obtained from an in-service edu-
cator or nursing administrator. Direct students to
request an interview with one or more individuals
who are involved in developing practice protocols
for the agency. The purpose of the interview is to
determine the basis for the existing protocol. Sug-
gested interview questions include the following:
• Can you explain how protocols are written in
your agency?
• On what information was this specific protocol
based?
• Are there any references that will give me a
better understanding of the rationale for the
practices included in the protocol?
After the interview, students should submit a brief
paper that describes the experience and states a
conclusion about whether or not the protocol is
research-based.
On completion of the clinical exercise, stu-
dents may also be asked to present their findings
in class.
During the discussion period it is important to
consider the following questions:
• Was any reference to research made, either by
the interviewee or in the protocol itself?
• If no reference is made or if the reference is a
non-research source, how does one know that
the selected technique/protocol is valid?
• What then is the basis of the selected practice?
• What is the value of research support of the se-
lected technique/protocol or for any technique/
protocol?
4. Using Diagrams to Show
Relationships
Students respond to visual representations be-
cause diagrams often clarify a potentially confus-
ing topic. When using examples in discussions
about concepts, theory, research, and hypothesis
development, you should map out specific rela-
tionships. Diagrams that clearly identify the vari-
ables being studied and the relationships between
them will enhance students’ understanding of the
process used to summarize literature and arrive
at hypotheses. In Figure 2-5 below, the link be-
tween the independent variables (stress, social
support, coping) and dependent variable (health
outcomes) is illustrated. The figure outlines the
process through which a supportive interven-
tion influences the health outcomes of homeless
youth. Locate the article and work with the stu-
dents to understand how the framework informed
the hypothesized relationships.
5. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
FORMULATING DEFINITIONS
This learning activity is designed to give stu-
dents experience in developing operational
definitions in an effort to increase their ability
to critique the definitions they read in research
reports.
Loading page 10...
10 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Construct a conceptual definition.
• Construct an operational definition.
• Evaluate an operational definition in terms of
clarity and inclusion of an index of measurement.
Directions for implementation. Identify or ask stu-
dents to name concepts. Select four to six of these
concepts for students to define, both conceptually
and operationally, using a library and other resour-
ces. Students can start with a dictionary definition
and then read the work of a theorist who has exam-
ined the concept. To make this activity manageable
for students, you can have each choose one of the
identified concepts to define. Another option is to
have only some students (equal to the number of
concepts to be defined) involved in this particular
learning activity, while others can be engaged in
different learning activities at other times in the re-
search course. This activity also can be a written
assignment completed out of class and then shared
at a subsequent class session. You can also include
the construction of an operational definition as an
item on an examination.
Guidelines for discussion. After students share
their defi nitions with the class, you can focus on
the evaluation of each definition. Of course, stu-
dents should be actively involved in the evalua-
tion discussion. You can prompt students by
asking them whether each definition is clear and
unambiguous and to identify the specific index of
measurement that operationalizes the definition.
FIGURE 2-5 Model of conceptual foundation. From Stewart, M., Reutter, L., Letoumeau, N., & Makwarimba, E. (2009).
A support intervention to promote health and coping among homeless youths. Canadian Journal of N ursing Research,
41(2), 54–77.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Construct a conceptual definition.
• Construct an operational definition.
• Evaluate an operational definition in terms of
clarity and inclusion of an index of measurement.
Directions for implementation. Identify or ask stu-
dents to name concepts. Select four to six of these
concepts for students to define, both conceptually
and operationally, using a library and other resour-
ces. Students can start with a dictionary definition
and then read the work of a theorist who has exam-
ined the concept. To make this activity manageable
for students, you can have each choose one of the
identified concepts to define. Another option is to
have only some students (equal to the number of
concepts to be defined) involved in this particular
learning activity, while others can be engaged in
different learning activities at other times in the re-
search course. This activity also can be a written
assignment completed out of class and then shared
at a subsequent class session. You can also include
the construction of an operational definition as an
item on an examination.
Guidelines for discussion. After students share
their defi nitions with the class, you can focus on
the evaluation of each definition. Of course, stu-
dents should be actively involved in the evalua-
tion discussion. You can prompt students by
asking them whether each definition is clear and
unambiguous and to identify the specific index of
measurement that operationalizes the definition.
FIGURE 2-5 Model of conceptual foundation. From Stewart, M., Reutter, L., Letoumeau, N., & Makwarimba, E. (2009).
A support intervention to promote health and coping among homeless youths. Canadian Journal of N ursing Research,
41(2), 54–77.
Loading page 11...
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 3
Critical Reading Strategies:
Overview of the Research Process
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 3 begins by emphasizing the need to use critical thinking and critical reading skills when
reading a research article. Both concepts are defined and discussed as a means to help students
more effectively read and understand research articles. The authors separate the process of critical
reading into four levels, or stages, of understanding: preliminary, comprehensive, analysis, and
synthesis. Strategies to facilitate each stage of understanding are presented.
A section of Chapter 3 addresses and validates the difficulties perceived by a novice reader of
research. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to describing the format and style of research
reports. The authors walk the reader through each step of the research process, indicating how
and where to find related content in published research and in this textbook. Examples from
published studies are presented to bring abstract discussion to a concrete level.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Identify the steps that researchers use to conduct quantitative and qualitative research.
• Identify the importance of critical thinking and critical reading for the reading of research articles.
• Identify the steps associated with critical reading.
• Use the steps of critical reading to review research articles.
• Use identified strategies to critically read research articles.
• Use identified critical thinking and critical reading strategies to synthesize critiqued articles.
• Identify the format and style of research articles.
Critical Reading Strategies:
Overview of the Research Process
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 3 begins by emphasizing the need to use critical thinking and critical reading skills when
reading a research article. Both concepts are defined and discussed as a means to help students
more effectively read and understand research articles. The authors separate the process of critical
reading into four levels, or stages, of understanding: preliminary, comprehensive, analysis, and
synthesis. Strategies to facilitate each stage of understanding are presented.
A section of Chapter 3 addresses and validates the difficulties perceived by a novice reader of
research. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to describing the format and style of research
reports. The authors walk the reader through each step of the research process, indicating how
and where to find related content in published research and in this textbook. Examples from
published studies are presented to bring abstract discussion to a concrete level.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Identify the steps that researchers use to conduct quantitative and qualitative research.
• Identify the importance of critical thinking and critical reading for the reading of research articles.
• Identify the steps associated with critical reading.
• Use the steps of critical reading to review research articles.
• Use identified strategies to critically read research articles.
• Use identified critical thinking and critical reading strategies to synthesize critiqued articles.
• Identify the format and style of research articles.
Loading page 12...
12 CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Because practice is required to develop skill in
the use of critical thinking and critical reading, it
is essential to engage the learner in dialogue and
experiential learning activities. Clarification of
these concepts through discussion should there-
fore be followed by in-class practice, so that you
can facilitate students’ use of these essential skills.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following discussion questions provide a
guide for reviewing the content of Chapter 3 and
helping students to think about their past use of
critical thinking and reading skills:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is critical thinking?
• What is critical reading?
• How would you define the stages of critical
reading?
• What strategies facilitate comprehensive under-
standing of a research report?
• What questions are helpful to ask when ana-
lyzing a research report?
• What are the main sections of a research report?
How do you know them when you see them?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How have you used critical thinking skills in
the past?
• What general assumptions have you made
about the literature you have read for other
courses?
• Compare and contrast critical reading with
reading for pleasure.
• How does a dialogue with the text enhance
your ability to understand its meaning?
2. Questioning by the Socratic Method
Socratic questioning involves challenging stu-
dents to find their own answers to a dilemma and
helping them accept that not all questions have
“right” answers. It goes beyond recall of facts or
descriptions of concepts by encouraging students
to think critically about their own ideas as they
are challenged by opposite points of view. This is
a classic technique and was first applied to teach-
ing nursing research by Sakalys (1985). She sug-
gested that the questions asked in the Reflective
Judgment Interview (RJI), developed by King
and Kitchener, are consistent with questioning
by the Socratic method. The RJI poses dilemmas
with two conflicting statements, followed by stan-
dard questions that are intended to elicit students’
opinions about the issue and their rationale for the
stand they take.
The dilemmas contained in the RJI are not clin-
ically oriented, but you can develop ones that are
relevant to the research consumer role. A dilemma
should be read aloud to the class while students read
along from a copy. The questions are then posed,
and students are encouraged to share their beliefs,
opinions, and hypotheses relevant to the issue.
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Developing Critical Reading Skills
The purpose of this in-class group exercise is to
actively engage students in critical dialogue about
written material. Based on the Intra-Act procedure
for critical reading (Hoffman, 1979), this learn-
ing activity fosters “… problem-solving, critical
analysis, and metacognitive awareness while at-
tending to course content” (Van Dyk & Jensen,
1990).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify the main ideas of a text selection.
• Engage in the process of valuing by forming
opinions about the selection.
• Differentiate quickly formed opinions from
those arrived at by critical analysis of the text
and dialogue with peers.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Because practice is required to develop skill in
the use of critical thinking and critical reading, it
is essential to engage the learner in dialogue and
experiential learning activities. Clarification of
these concepts through discussion should there-
fore be followed by in-class practice, so that you
can facilitate students’ use of these essential skills.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
The following discussion questions provide a
guide for reviewing the content of Chapter 3 and
helping students to think about their past use of
critical thinking and reading skills:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What is critical thinking?
• What is critical reading?
• How would you define the stages of critical
reading?
• What strategies facilitate comprehensive under-
standing of a research report?
• What questions are helpful to ask when ana-
lyzing a research report?
• What are the main sections of a research report?
How do you know them when you see them?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How have you used critical thinking skills in
the past?
• What general assumptions have you made
about the literature you have read for other
courses?
• Compare and contrast critical reading with
reading for pleasure.
• How does a dialogue with the text enhance
your ability to understand its meaning?
2. Questioning by the Socratic Method
Socratic questioning involves challenging stu-
dents to find their own answers to a dilemma and
helping them accept that not all questions have
“right” answers. It goes beyond recall of facts or
descriptions of concepts by encouraging students
to think critically about their own ideas as they
are challenged by opposite points of view. This is
a classic technique and was first applied to teach-
ing nursing research by Sakalys (1985). She sug-
gested that the questions asked in the Reflective
Judgment Interview (RJI), developed by King
and Kitchener, are consistent with questioning
by the Socratic method. The RJI poses dilemmas
with two conflicting statements, followed by stan-
dard questions that are intended to elicit students’
opinions about the issue and their rationale for the
stand they take.
The dilemmas contained in the RJI are not clin-
ically oriented, but you can develop ones that are
relevant to the research consumer role. A dilemma
should be read aloud to the class while students read
along from a copy. The questions are then posed,
and students are encouraged to share their beliefs,
opinions, and hypotheses relevant to the issue.
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Developing Critical Reading Skills
The purpose of this in-class group exercise is to
actively engage students in critical dialogue about
written material. Based on the Intra-Act procedure
for critical reading (Hoffman, 1979), this learn-
ing activity fosters “… problem-solving, critical
analysis, and metacognitive awareness while at-
tending to course content” (Van Dyk & Jensen,
1990).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify the main ideas of a text selection.
• Engage in the process of valuing by forming
opinions about the selection.
• Differentiate quickly formed opinions from
those arrived at by critical analysis of the text
and dialogue with peers.
Loading page 13...
CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process 13
Directions for implementation. Choose a rela-
tively simple research report for in-class reading.
The report should be no more than four to five
pages and should be simple versus complex in its
presentation. Form small groups (four to six stu-
dents) and appoint a student from each group to
be the leader. In choosing a group leader, keep
in mind that he or she should possess the ability
to initiate and sustain discussion. Provide a copy
of the report to each study. Provide a handout for
students that includes a description of the Critical
Reading Process (see Table 3-1 in the core text),
the appropriate critical appraisal table (18-1 or
19-1 in the core text), and the Intra-Act sheet (see
sample below). Explain the purpose and methods
of the exercise before proceeding with the follow-
ing phases.
Comprehending Research Articles
Begin this activity by instructing students to use
the highlights of critical reading process strat-
egies to read the article. The focus will be on
preliminary and comprehensive understanding,
as this phase of the activity is intended to help
students build a frame of reference for the text.
The group leader’s responsibility is to summar-
ize the text, encourage group members to contrib-
ute additional information about what was read,
or ask questions to clarify the main ideas of the
selection.
This phase should be limited to 15 to 20 min-
utes for reading and 10 minutes for discussion.
Step 1: Strategies for preliminary understanding
• Review critiquing guidelines from your text
and keep these in mind as you read.
• Review the title, headings, and subheadings,
cap tions under pictures, charts, graphs, or
maps.
• Turn each heading into a question that you
attempt to answer.
• Read the introduction and discussion sec-
tion of the article.
• Highlight or underline on the photocopy
any new terms, unfamiliar terms, and sig-
nifi cant sentences.
• Look up the definitions of new terms, and
write them on the photocopy.
• Highlight or underline identified steps of
the research process.
Step 2: Strategies for comprehensive understanding
• Identify the main idea or theme of the arti-
cle; state it in your own words in one or two
sentences.
• Before critiquing the article, make sure
you understand the main points of each re-
ported step of the research process that you
identified.
Step 3: Group Think
The leader should next shift the discussion from the
ideas contained in the text selection to the group’s
personal reactions and values related to the content
of the reading material. (This shift often occurs nat-
urally.) All members should be encouraged to share
their personal impressions and opinions.
This phase should be limited to 10 minutes.
Step 4: Valuation phase
Each class member is then asked to remove an
Intra-Act sheet that contains four value statements
that you previously wrote about the research article
(see sample below). These statements should
reflect opinions about the article and/or be a vehicle
for providing new insights about its meaning of the
findings from the article. Instruct students to mark
either A (agree) or D (disagree) for each statement
under their own name. This phase is intended to
help students derive and integrate the personal
meaning that the text has for them.
When critiquing the theoretical framework for a
quantitative article, one example may include: The
framework of this article is not consistent with a
nursing perspective or It is difficult to link the frame-
work to the hypothesis outlined by the author(s).
Directions for implementation. Choose a rela-
tively simple research report for in-class reading.
The report should be no more than four to five
pages and should be simple versus complex in its
presentation. Form small groups (four to six stu-
dents) and appoint a student from each group to
be the leader. In choosing a group leader, keep
in mind that he or she should possess the ability
to initiate and sustain discussion. Provide a copy
of the report to each study. Provide a handout for
students that includes a description of the Critical
Reading Process (see Table 3-1 in the core text),
the appropriate critical appraisal table (18-1 or
19-1 in the core text), and the Intra-Act sheet (see
sample below). Explain the purpose and methods
of the exercise before proceeding with the follow-
ing phases.
Comprehending Research Articles
Begin this activity by instructing students to use
the highlights of critical reading process strat-
egies to read the article. The focus will be on
preliminary and comprehensive understanding,
as this phase of the activity is intended to help
students build a frame of reference for the text.
The group leader’s responsibility is to summar-
ize the text, encourage group members to contrib-
ute additional information about what was read,
or ask questions to clarify the main ideas of the
selection.
This phase should be limited to 15 to 20 min-
utes for reading and 10 minutes for discussion.
Step 1: Strategies for preliminary understanding
• Review critiquing guidelines from your text
and keep these in mind as you read.
• Review the title, headings, and subheadings,
cap tions under pictures, charts, graphs, or
maps.
• Turn each heading into a question that you
attempt to answer.
• Read the introduction and discussion sec-
tion of the article.
• Highlight or underline on the photocopy
any new terms, unfamiliar terms, and sig-
nifi cant sentences.
• Look up the definitions of new terms, and
write them on the photocopy.
• Highlight or underline identified steps of
the research process.
Step 2: Strategies for comprehensive understanding
• Identify the main idea or theme of the arti-
cle; state it in your own words in one or two
sentences.
• Before critiquing the article, make sure
you understand the main points of each re-
ported step of the research process that you
identified.
Step 3: Group Think
The leader should next shift the discussion from the
ideas contained in the text selection to the group’s
personal reactions and values related to the content
of the reading material. (This shift often occurs nat-
urally.) All members should be encouraged to share
their personal impressions and opinions.
This phase should be limited to 10 minutes.
Step 4: Valuation phase
Each class member is then asked to remove an
Intra-Act sheet that contains four value statements
that you previously wrote about the research article
(see sample below). These statements should
reflect opinions about the article and/or be a vehicle
for providing new insights about its meaning of the
findings from the article. Instruct students to mark
either A (agree) or D (disagree) for each statement
under their own name. This phase is intended to
help students derive and integrate the personal
meaning that the text has for them.
When critiquing the theoretical framework for a
quantitative article, one example may include: The
framework of this article is not consistent with a
nursing perspective or It is difficult to link the frame-
work to the hypothesis outlined by the author(s).
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14 CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process
Students should next engage in discussion
about the statements on the game sheet (approxi-
mately 10 minutes). Based on the discussion,
students should then be asked to predict how each
of the other group members responded to the
value statements by placing an A or D under each
person’s name for each statement.
Step 5: Reflective phase
Begin this phase by having students score the
game sheets. Group members should then take
turns sharing how each responded and how each
predicted the others would respond. As the dis-
cussion takes place, students should check wheth-
er their predictions agreed with other members’
actual responses.
During this phase, your role is that of a facilita-
tor, rephrasing students’ comments for validation,
summarizing how students responded, but not
making value judgments about students’ opinions
or comments. This is a time to allow students
to reflect on what they have learned in terms of
content and process.
Step 6: Debriefing phase
Afterward, debrief the class by posing the follow-
ing questions:
• What did you learn from participation in Intra-
Act?
• Why must all group members participate?
• How might discussion improve the next time
we use this method?
These questions attempt to sensitize students to
the purpose of the exercise (critical reading) and
to the role that collegial dialogue plays in help-
ing an individual to clarify his or her own ideas.
Intra-Act Activity Sheet
Name:
Date:
Total Score:
Percentage of Correct Predictions:
Directions:
Write the names of all members of the group, including yourself, in the boxes at the top of the columns
(one name per column). Then read the statements. Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the
statement by circling either (A) for agree or (D) for disagree. Then predict the responses of the other
members of your group by doing the same thing. Once all members of your group are finished, score the
sheets and discuss why you agreed or disagreed with the statements.
Name
Statement A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
Students should next engage in discussion
about the statements on the game sheet (approxi-
mately 10 minutes). Based on the discussion,
students should then be asked to predict how each
of the other group members responded to the
value statements by placing an A or D under each
person’s name for each statement.
Step 5: Reflective phase
Begin this phase by having students score the
game sheets. Group members should then take
turns sharing how each responded and how each
predicted the others would respond. As the dis-
cussion takes place, students should check wheth-
er their predictions agreed with other members’
actual responses.
During this phase, your role is that of a facilita-
tor, rephrasing students’ comments for validation,
summarizing how students responded, but not
making value judgments about students’ opinions
or comments. This is a time to allow students
to reflect on what they have learned in terms of
content and process.
Step 6: Debriefing phase
Afterward, debrief the class by posing the follow-
ing questions:
• What did you learn from participation in Intra-
Act?
• Why must all group members participate?
• How might discussion improve the next time
we use this method?
These questions attempt to sensitize students to
the purpose of the exercise (critical reading) and
to the role that collegial dialogue plays in help-
ing an individual to clarify his or her own ideas.
Intra-Act Activity Sheet
Name:
Date:
Total Score:
Percentage of Correct Predictions:
Directions:
Write the names of all members of the group, including yourself, in the boxes at the top of the columns
(one name per column). Then read the statements. Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the
statement by circling either (A) for agree or (D) for disagree. Then predict the responses of the other
members of your group by doing the same thing. Once all members of your group are finished, score the
sheets and discuss why you agreed or disagreed with the statements.
Name
Statement A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
A D A D A D A D A D A D
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CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process 15
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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 4
Developing Research Questions
and Hypotheses
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 4 first addresses the development of a research question and hypotheses, including
numerous examples of how practical experience leads to the identification of a clinical question,
and the scientific literature enables refinement of that question. Also provided are examples of
problem statements taken from the research literature. It is important for students to understand
that the research question or research problem will drive the design of the research, and the
development of a hypothesis heralds quantitative research design.
Second, this chapter provides an extensive examination of the nature, depth, and scope of
research questions and hypotheses. Characteristics of a hypothesis statement are discussed in
detail and include a relationship statement, the nature of the relationship, testability, and theory
base. Examples are provided of hypotheses that meet and fail to meet these characteristics. In
addition, research questions are discussed in terms of the kinds of studies and conditions in which
they commonly are posed.
Perhaps the most salient aspect of this chapter is the critiquing process involved in evaluating
the soundness of a stated research question and the strengths and weaknesses of a hypothesis
statement. Three key elements are highlighted for evaluating a research question for quantitative
research:
1. Does the research question express a relationship between two or more variables, or at least between
an independent and a dependent variable?
2. Does the research question specify the nature of the population being studied?
3. Does the research question imply the possibility of empiric testing?
Developing Research Questions
and Hypotheses
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 4 first addresses the development of a research question and hypotheses, including
numerous examples of how practical experience leads to the identification of a clinical question,
and the scientific literature enables refinement of that question. Also provided are examples of
problem statements taken from the research literature. It is important for students to understand
that the research question or research problem will drive the design of the research, and the
development of a hypothesis heralds quantitative research design.
Second, this chapter provides an extensive examination of the nature, depth, and scope of
research questions and hypotheses. Characteristics of a hypothesis statement are discussed in
detail and include a relationship statement, the nature of the relationship, testability, and theory
base. Examples are provided of hypotheses that meet and fail to meet these characteristics. In
addition, research questions are discussed in terms of the kinds of studies and conditions in which
they commonly are posed.
Perhaps the most salient aspect of this chapter is the critiquing process involved in evaluating
the soundness of a stated research question and the strengths and weaknesses of a hypothesis
statement. Three key elements are highlighted for evaluating a research question for quantitative
research:
1. Does the research question express a relationship between two or more variables, or at least between
an independent and a dependent variable?
2. Does the research question specify the nature of the population being studied?
3. Does the research question imply the possibility of empiric testing?
Loading page 18...
18 CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses
Students are shown, through discussion and example, how to examine a hypothesis to determine
(1) its ability to answer the research problem directly; (2) its clarity, succinctness, and objectivity; (3)
whether it expresses the relationship between key variables, and (4) whether it is understandable
to the reader.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Describe how the research question and hypothesis relate to the other components of the research
process.
• Describe the process of identifying and refining a research question.
• Identify the criteria for determining the significance of a research question.
• Discuss the purpose of developing a research question.
• Discuss the appropriate use of the purpose, aim, or objective of a research study.
• Discuss how the purpose, research question, and hypothesis suggest the level of evidence to be
obtained from the findings of a research study.
• Identify the characteristics of research questions and hypotheses.
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of directional and nondirectional hypotheses.
• Compare the use of statistical hypotheses versus research hypotheses.
• Discuss the appropriate use of research questions versus hypotheses in a research study.
• Discuss the differences between a research question and a clinical question in relation to evidence-
informed practice.
• Identify the criteria used for critiquing a research question and a hypothesis.
• Apply the critiquing criteria to the evaluation of a research question and a hypothesis in a research
report.
Students are shown, through discussion and example, how to examine a hypothesis to determine
(1) its ability to answer the research problem directly; (2) its clarity, succinctness, and objectivity; (3)
whether it expresses the relationship between key variables, and (4) whether it is understandable
to the reader.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Describe how the research question and hypothesis relate to the other components of the research
process.
• Describe the process of identifying and refining a research question.
• Identify the criteria for determining the significance of a research question.
• Discuss the purpose of developing a research question.
• Discuss the appropriate use of the purpose, aim, or objective of a research study.
• Discuss how the purpose, research question, and hypothesis suggest the level of evidence to be
obtained from the findings of a research study.
• Identify the characteristics of research questions and hypotheses.
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of directional and nondirectional hypotheses.
• Compare the use of statistical hypotheses versus research hypotheses.
• Discuss the appropriate use of research questions versus hypotheses in a research study.
• Discuss the differences between a research question and a clinical question in relation to evidence-
informed practice.
• Identify the criteria used for critiquing a research question and a hypothesis.
• Apply the critiquing criteria to the evaluation of a research question and a hypothesis in a research
report.
Loading page 19...
CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses 19
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Strategies for facilitating learning of the research
question and hypothesis are described separately.
The first group of teaching strategies focuses
on the research question, and the second group
focuses on the hypothesis.
A. The Research Question
In relation to developing and evaluating research
questions, teaching strategies should routinely
include examples that students can relate to their
clinical experience. Such an approach can facili-
tate meaningful discussions about the relationship
between the study of research questions and nurs-
ing practice. The following teaching strategies
are designed to incorporate this approach and en-
hance the nursing student’s acuity in recognizing
and judging the merits of research questions.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
To stimulate critical thinking about researchable
research questions and the question itself, the fol-
lowing questions are proposed:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• How is a research question identified?
• Define the terms independent variable and
dependent variable.
• How is the research question refined?
• What are research and statistical hypotheses?
• What are the components of a research question?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How might you go about developing a research
question to address anorexia in adolescents?
• What is the relationship between the literature
review and the research question?
• Why is potential significance to nursing an
important attribute of a research question?
2. Identifying Relational Statements
One of the criteria for evaluating a research ques-
tion is the expression of a relationship between
key variables. It has been our experience that stu-
dents have difficulty identifying the terms that ex-
press a relationship between variables. In the past,
students have confused the predictive terminol-
ogy used in hypotheses with the relationship cri-
teria for research questions and have, therefore,
critiqued the latter statements inappropriately. A
possible way of clarifying the identification of a
relational statement in the research question is to
share with students examples of different termin-
ology used by researchers to convey relationships
between variables under study. Several of these
examples follow. (The relational terms are itali-
cized.)
• What is the relationship between preopera-
tive anxiety and postoperative pain in patients
undergoing elective cholecystectomy?
• What is the effect of a prenatal nutrition pro-
gram on the rate of premature delivery in pri-
miparous Aboriginal women?
• What is the difference in the incidence of falls in
elderly patients in relation to the use of side rails?
3. Using Examples to Point out Different
Forms of the Research Question
Because research questions are stated in both in-
terrogative and declarative forms, it is important
that this be clearly conveyed to students to avoid
unnecessary confusion or misinterpretation when
they are evaluating research reports. It is helpful
to present students with a number of examples
of how an interrogative form (a question) can be
phrased in declarative form (a statement) with-
out changing the content of the inquiry and vice
versa. Two such examples follow:
INTERROGATIVE FORM
• Is there a relationship between the physical
symptoms of pregnancy and maternal–fetal
attachment in primigravidae?
• What is the difference in the incidence of
contractures in comatose patients in relation to
frequency of positioning?
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Strategies for facilitating learning of the research
question and hypothesis are described separately.
The first group of teaching strategies focuses
on the research question, and the second group
focuses on the hypothesis.
A. The Research Question
In relation to developing and evaluating research
questions, teaching strategies should routinely
include examples that students can relate to their
clinical experience. Such an approach can facili-
tate meaningful discussions about the relationship
between the study of research questions and nurs-
ing practice. The following teaching strategies
are designed to incorporate this approach and en-
hance the nursing student’s acuity in recognizing
and judging the merits of research questions.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
To stimulate critical thinking about researchable
research questions and the question itself, the fol-
lowing questions are proposed:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• How is a research question identified?
• Define the terms independent variable and
dependent variable.
• How is the research question refined?
• What are research and statistical hypotheses?
• What are the components of a research question?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How might you go about developing a research
question to address anorexia in adolescents?
• What is the relationship between the literature
review and the research question?
• Why is potential significance to nursing an
important attribute of a research question?
2. Identifying Relational Statements
One of the criteria for evaluating a research ques-
tion is the expression of a relationship between
key variables. It has been our experience that stu-
dents have difficulty identifying the terms that ex-
press a relationship between variables. In the past,
students have confused the predictive terminol-
ogy used in hypotheses with the relationship cri-
teria for research questions and have, therefore,
critiqued the latter statements inappropriately. A
possible way of clarifying the identification of a
relational statement in the research question is to
share with students examples of different termin-
ology used by researchers to convey relationships
between variables under study. Several of these
examples follow. (The relational terms are itali-
cized.)
• What is the relationship between preopera-
tive anxiety and postoperative pain in patients
undergoing elective cholecystectomy?
• What is the effect of a prenatal nutrition pro-
gram on the rate of premature delivery in pri-
miparous Aboriginal women?
• What is the difference in the incidence of falls in
elderly patients in relation to the use of side rails?
3. Using Examples to Point out Different
Forms of the Research Question
Because research questions are stated in both in-
terrogative and declarative forms, it is important
that this be clearly conveyed to students to avoid
unnecessary confusion or misinterpretation when
they are evaluating research reports. It is helpful
to present students with a number of examples
of how an interrogative form (a question) can be
phrased in declarative form (a statement) with-
out changing the content of the inquiry and vice
versa. Two such examples follow:
INTERROGATIVE FORM
• Is there a relationship between the physical
symptoms of pregnancy and maternal–fetal
attachment in primigravidae?
• What is the difference in the incidence of
contractures in comatose patients in relation to
frequency of positioning?
Loading page 20...
20 CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses
DECLARATIVE FORM
• The purpose of this study is to investigate the
relationship between the physical symptoms
of pregnancy and maternal–fetal attachment in
primigravidae.
• This study investigates the difference in the in-
cidence of contractures in comatose patients in
relation to frequency of repositioning.
4. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Critiquing Research Questions or Statements
The purpose of this exercise is to provide students
with an opportunity to critique the research ques-
tions/statements of research studies using the
criteria presented in Chapter 4.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify the research question of a clinical
nursing study.
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
statement.
Directions for implementation. Have students
read Chapter 4 with emphasis on “Critiquing
Criteria.” Select two clinical research stud-
ies (from the appendix in the text or one of the
studies listed below) and ask students to read the
introduction and literature review of the selected
studies before class. Suggested studies follow:
Study 1: Christman, S. K., et al. (2000).
Continuous handrail support, oxygen
uptake, and heart rate in women during sub-
maximal step treadmill exercise. Research
in Nursing and Health, 23(1), 35–42.
Study 2: Wilson, D. (2002). The duration
and degree of end-of-life dependency of
home care clients and hospital inpatients.
Advanced Nursing Research, 15, 81nced
Study 3: Watt-Watson, J., Garfinkel, P.,
Gallop, R., Stevens, B., & Streiner, D. (2000).
The impact of nurses’ empathic responses on
patients’ pain management in acute care.
Nursing Research, 49(4), 191–200.
In seminar, students present their evaluations of the
research question of each study. Encourage students
to discuss their evaluations with each other and to
reach a consensus on whether the problem statement
meets each of the criteria listed in Chapter 4 of the
textbook. Allow 30 to 45 minutes for this exercise.
b. Analyzing Research Questions
The purpose of this exercise is to provide students
with an opportunity to analyze the researcher’s
development of a research question (see Chapter 4
in the textbook).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Analyze the relationship between the research
question and the literature review.
• Evaluate the researcher’s discussion of the
question’s significance.
Directions for implementation. This is a continu-
ation of learning activity a, “Critiquing Research
questions.” Using the same three studies, have
students first determine the variables presented in
the literature review. Then ask students to identify
whether relationships between these variables are
presented and, if so, with what degree of clarity.
Afterward, encourage students to discuss the con-
nections between the problem statement and the
literature review. Questions that may be used to
initiate discussion include the following:
• Are all the variables contained in the research
question presented in the literature review?
• Are there any gaps between previous research
contained in the literature review and the ques-
tion under study?
Once the relationship between the research ques-
tion and the literature review has been analyzed,
have students determine whether the researcher
DECLARATIVE FORM
• The purpose of this study is to investigate the
relationship between the physical symptoms
of pregnancy and maternal–fetal attachment in
primigravidae.
• This study investigates the difference in the in-
cidence of contractures in comatose patients in
relation to frequency of repositioning.
4. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Critiquing Research Questions or Statements
The purpose of this exercise is to provide students
with an opportunity to critique the research ques-
tions/statements of research studies using the
criteria presented in Chapter 4.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify the research question of a clinical
nursing study.
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
statement.
Directions for implementation. Have students
read Chapter 4 with emphasis on “Critiquing
Criteria.” Select two clinical research stud-
ies (from the appendix in the text or one of the
studies listed below) and ask students to read the
introduction and literature review of the selected
studies before class. Suggested studies follow:
Study 1: Christman, S. K., et al. (2000).
Continuous handrail support, oxygen
uptake, and heart rate in women during sub-
maximal step treadmill exercise. Research
in Nursing and Health, 23(1), 35–42.
Study 2: Wilson, D. (2002). The duration
and degree of end-of-life dependency of
home care clients and hospital inpatients.
Advanced Nursing Research, 15, 81nced
Study 3: Watt-Watson, J., Garfinkel, P.,
Gallop, R., Stevens, B., & Streiner, D. (2000).
The impact of nurses’ empathic responses on
patients’ pain management in acute care.
Nursing Research, 49(4), 191–200.
In seminar, students present their evaluations of the
research question of each study. Encourage students
to discuss their evaluations with each other and to
reach a consensus on whether the problem statement
meets each of the criteria listed in Chapter 4 of the
textbook. Allow 30 to 45 minutes for this exercise.
b. Analyzing Research Questions
The purpose of this exercise is to provide students
with an opportunity to analyze the researcher’s
development of a research question (see Chapter 4
in the textbook).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Analyze the relationship between the research
question and the literature review.
• Evaluate the researcher’s discussion of the
question’s significance.
Directions for implementation. This is a continu-
ation of learning activity a, “Critiquing Research
questions.” Using the same three studies, have
students first determine the variables presented in
the literature review. Then ask students to identify
whether relationships between these variables are
presented and, if so, with what degree of clarity.
Afterward, encourage students to discuss the con-
nections between the problem statement and the
literature review. Questions that may be used to
initiate discussion include the following:
• Are all the variables contained in the research
question presented in the literature review?
• Are there any gaps between previous research
contained in the literature review and the ques-
tion under study?
Once the relationship between the research ques-
tion and the literature review has been analyzed,
have students determine whether the researcher
Loading page 21...
CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses 21
has discussed the significance of the question
to nursing. If a discussion of the question’s
significance is present, encourage students to
evaluate the validity of the researcher’s presen-
tation. If not, have students explore their own
thoughts about the question’s significance. Allow
30 to 45 minutes for this exercise.
c. Developing a Research Question
The purpose of this activity is to give students an
opportunity to formulate a research question or a
clinical nursing study.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify a clinical nursing question.
• Formulate a research question that is related to
a clinical nursing situation.
• Evaluate the formulated question according to the
criteria presented in Chapter 4 of the textbook.
Directions for implementation. Ascertain the clin-
ical interests of your students; then divide them
into small groups (four or five students per group)
based on those interest areas. Ask the groups to
develop a research question for a nursing study.
Allow about 30 minutes for this portion of the ex-
ercise. Have each group then present its research
question to the entire class. Instruct students to
evaluate each statement presented and to share
their comments with their peers. The time needed
for this portion of the exercise will depend on the
number of groups involved. Allow 5 to 10 minutes
for discussion of each group’s research question.
B. The Hypothesis
As stated in the textbook, hypotheses are an
attempt to answer the posed research questions.
They are critical to testing the validity of the as-
sumptions of the stated theoretical framework.
The teaching strategies that follow are designed
to facilitate students’ understanding of movement
within the research process from assumptions to
theoretical framework to hypothesis formulation
and to provide an opportunity to write and cri-
tique hypothesis statements.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
To stimulate critical thinking about the hypoth-
esis, the following questions are proposed:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What are the characteristics of a hypothesis?
• What are the different types of hypotheses?
• How are hypotheses derived?
• What must occur for a hypothesis to meet the
criterion of testability?
• What are hypotheses actually testing?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• In what situations would research be con-
ducted to generate hypotheses?
• In what situations would research be con-
ducted to test hypotheses?
• How do research questions differ from hypoth-
eses, and in which instance is each appropriate?
• What does it mean to have a hypothesis sup-
ported? Rejected?
2. Using Examples to Reinforce the
Connections between Prior and New
Learning
A technique often used in teaching is reinforcement
of previous learning. Reinforcement is used to
strengthen a particular behaviour—in this case,
knowledge of the research process. It can also
serve as a precursor to making new connections
to previous learning. The following teaching
strategy can be used to reinforce learning about
assumptions, the theoretical framework, and their
connection, while at the same time reinforcing the
connection between the hypothesis statement and
the steps that precede its formulation. Students
should read the following studies before class:
Study 1: Bliss, D. Z., et al. (2001). Supple-
mentation with dietary fiber improves fecal
has discussed the significance of the question
to nursing. If a discussion of the question’s
significance is present, encourage students to
evaluate the validity of the researcher’s presen-
tation. If not, have students explore their own
thoughts about the question’s significance. Allow
30 to 45 minutes for this exercise.
c. Developing a Research Question
The purpose of this activity is to give students an
opportunity to formulate a research question or a
clinical nursing study.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify a clinical nursing question.
• Formulate a research question that is related to
a clinical nursing situation.
• Evaluate the formulated question according to the
criteria presented in Chapter 4 of the textbook.
Directions for implementation. Ascertain the clin-
ical interests of your students; then divide them
into small groups (four or five students per group)
based on those interest areas. Ask the groups to
develop a research question for a nursing study.
Allow about 30 minutes for this portion of the ex-
ercise. Have each group then present its research
question to the entire class. Instruct students to
evaluate each statement presented and to share
their comments with their peers. The time needed
for this portion of the exercise will depend on the
number of groups involved. Allow 5 to 10 minutes
for discussion of each group’s research question.
B. The Hypothesis
As stated in the textbook, hypotheses are an
attempt to answer the posed research questions.
They are critical to testing the validity of the as-
sumptions of the stated theoretical framework.
The teaching strategies that follow are designed
to facilitate students’ understanding of movement
within the research process from assumptions to
theoretical framework to hypothesis formulation
and to provide an opportunity to write and cri-
tique hypothesis statements.
1. Critical Thinking Challenges
To stimulate critical thinking about the hypoth-
esis, the following questions are proposed:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What are the characteristics of a hypothesis?
• What are the different types of hypotheses?
• How are hypotheses derived?
• What must occur for a hypothesis to meet the
criterion of testability?
• What are hypotheses actually testing?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• In what situations would research be con-
ducted to generate hypotheses?
• In what situations would research be con-
ducted to test hypotheses?
• How do research questions differ from hypoth-
eses, and in which instance is each appropriate?
• What does it mean to have a hypothesis sup-
ported? Rejected?
2. Using Examples to Reinforce the
Connections between Prior and New
Learning
A technique often used in teaching is reinforcement
of previous learning. Reinforcement is used to
strengthen a particular behaviour—in this case,
knowledge of the research process. It can also
serve as a precursor to making new connections
to previous learning. The following teaching
strategy can be used to reinforce learning about
assumptions, the theoretical framework, and their
connection, while at the same time reinforcing the
connection between the hypothesis statement and
the steps that precede its formulation. Students
should read the following studies before class:
Study 1: Bliss, D. Z., et al. (2001). Supple-
mentation with dietary fiber improves fecal
Loading page 22...
22 CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses
incontinence. Nursing Research, 50(4),
203–213.
Study 2: LeFort, S. M. (2000). A test of
Braden’s self-help model in adults with
chronic pain. Journal of Nursing Scholarship,
32(2), 153–160.
After briefly reviewing key information about
what an assumption is (Chapter 3), the nature and
development of a theoretical framework (Chapter
2), and hypothesis development (Chapter 4), use
Study 1 to reinforce learning about the connec-
tions among these three aspects of the scientific
approach.
As you will note, the connections are logical
and the students should be able to understand
them readily. Once you determine that they have
grasped the interrelationships of Study 1, move
on to Study 2.
Draw Figure 4-2 on the blackboard and ask
students to identify the assumptions, theoretical
rationale, and hypothesis of Study 2. If students
have a good grasp of what these three aspects are
and how they are connected, they should be easily
able to fi ll in the blanks.
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Examining Sources Used to Support
Hypotheses
This learning activity enables the student to
examine more closely some of the research
cited in a literature review in support of study
hypotheses.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify how a specific hypothesis is sup-
ported, based on the conceptual (theory-based)
literature of a selected research study.
• Identify how a specific hypothesis is supported,
based on the data-based (previous research in
the area) literature of a selected research study.
Directions for implementation. Students can read
any of the studies listed in a previous learning ac-
tivity, paying particular attention to the literature
review, hypothesis statement, and findings. Stu-
dents should focus on the specific theory refl ected
by the hypothesis statement. They should select
one or two primary and one or two secondary
FIGURE 4-1. Study No. 1
(Refer to Bliss, D.Z., et al. (2001). Supplementation with dietary fiber improves fecal incontinence. Nursing Research, 40,
203–213.)
incontinence. Nursing Research, 50(4),
203–213.
Study 2: LeFort, S. M. (2000). A test of
Braden’s self-help model in adults with
chronic pain. Journal of Nursing Scholarship,
32(2), 153–160.
After briefly reviewing key information about
what an assumption is (Chapter 3), the nature and
development of a theoretical framework (Chapter
2), and hypothesis development (Chapter 4), use
Study 1 to reinforce learning about the connec-
tions among these three aspects of the scientific
approach.
As you will note, the connections are logical
and the students should be able to understand
them readily. Once you determine that they have
grasped the interrelationships of Study 1, move
on to Study 2.
Draw Figure 4-2 on the blackboard and ask
students to identify the assumptions, theoretical
rationale, and hypothesis of Study 2. If students
have a good grasp of what these three aspects are
and how they are connected, they should be easily
able to fi ll in the blanks.
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Examining Sources Used to Support
Hypotheses
This learning activity enables the student to
examine more closely some of the research
cited in a literature review in support of study
hypotheses.
Student objectives for the learning activity:
• Identify how a specific hypothesis is sup-
ported, based on the conceptual (theory-based)
literature of a selected research study.
• Identify how a specific hypothesis is supported,
based on the data-based (previous research in
the area) literature of a selected research study.
Directions for implementation. Students can read
any of the studies listed in a previous learning ac-
tivity, paying particular attention to the literature
review, hypothesis statement, and findings. Stu-
dents should focus on the specific theory refl ected
by the hypothesis statement. They should select
one or two primary and one or two secondary
FIGURE 4-1. Study No. 1
(Refer to Bliss, D.Z., et al. (2001). Supplementation with dietary fiber improves fecal incontinence. Nursing Research, 40,
203–213.)
Loading page 23...
CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses 23
sources listed in the bibliography of the article
that pertain to one of the study hypotheses. While
reviewing these sources, students should exam-
ine their relevance to the hypothesis statement.
They should take a position—pro or con—as to
whether the sources support the hypothesis and
defend that position.
b. Differentiating Between Dependent and
Independent Variables
Many students fi nd it difficult to differentiate
between dependent and independent variables.
After reviewing Table 4-4 (p. 79) in the textbook,
have the students list a variety of variables, (age,
weight, gender, GPA, satisfaction, blood pressure,
and so forth). Ask them to construct a variety of
hypotheses from the list of variables. Challenge
them to have statements in which one variable
(e.g., blood pressure) is a dependent variable and
then an independent variable.
c. Constructing Hypothesis Statements
This learning activity is designed to give students
experience in writing hypothesis statements so
they will have a better understanding of what
constitutes an appropriately written hypothesis.
Ultimately, the student can use this information
to evaluate hypotheses.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Construct a hypothesis statement.
• Identify the characteristics of hypothesis state-
ments that appear in the constructed hypothesis.
• Identify the characteristics of hypothesis state-
ments that do not appear in the constructed
hypothesis.
Directions for implementation. Ask students to
read just the literature review of either Appendix A
or C. This should be a pre-class assignment. In class,
you may want to review briefly the characteristics of
a hypothesis statement to reinforce prior learning.
In class, ask the students, without reading
further in the study, to develop a hypothesis state-
ment based on the theoretical rationale they have
read. (You can suggest that they construct an in-
ventory of relationships to get them started.)
Guidelines for discussion. After the experiential ac-
tivity, students can either independently or through
FIGURE 4-2. Study No. 2
sources listed in the bibliography of the article
that pertain to one of the study hypotheses. While
reviewing these sources, students should exam-
ine their relevance to the hypothesis statement.
They should take a position—pro or con—as to
whether the sources support the hypothesis and
defend that position.
b. Differentiating Between Dependent and
Independent Variables
Many students fi nd it difficult to differentiate
between dependent and independent variables.
After reviewing Table 4-4 (p. 79) in the textbook,
have the students list a variety of variables, (age,
weight, gender, GPA, satisfaction, blood pressure,
and so forth). Ask them to construct a variety of
hypotheses from the list of variables. Challenge
them to have statements in which one variable
(e.g., blood pressure) is a dependent variable and
then an independent variable.
c. Constructing Hypothesis Statements
This learning activity is designed to give students
experience in writing hypothesis statements so
they will have a better understanding of what
constitutes an appropriately written hypothesis.
Ultimately, the student can use this information
to evaluate hypotheses.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Construct a hypothesis statement.
• Identify the characteristics of hypothesis state-
ments that appear in the constructed hypothesis.
• Identify the characteristics of hypothesis state-
ments that do not appear in the constructed
hypothesis.
Directions for implementation. Ask students to
read just the literature review of either Appendix A
or C. This should be a pre-class assignment. In class,
you may want to review briefly the characteristics of
a hypothesis statement to reinforce prior learning.
In class, ask the students, without reading
further in the study, to develop a hypothesis state-
ment based on the theoretical rationale they have
read. (You can suggest that they construct an in-
ventory of relationships to get them started.)
Guidelines for discussion. After the experiential ac-
tivity, students can either independently or through
FIGURE 4-2. Study No. 2
Loading page 24...
24 CHAPTER 4 Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses
class discussion identify the characteristics that ap-
pear in their hypotheses; they should also identify
those that do not appear. Taking this a step further,
to enhance students’ ability to construct hypothesis
statements, you may want to have them reconstruct
their statements to include any omitted character-
istics. Then have the students compare their state-
ments to the hypothesis stated in the article.
d. Critiquing Hypothesis Statements
The purpose of the following learning activity is to
enhance students’ ability to evaluate the structural
aspects of a hypothesis statement, using criteria 1
through 11 identified under “The Hypotheses” in
the Critiquing Criteria box (p. 87 in the textbook).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Use criteria 1 through 11 (see Critiquing Cri-
teria box) to critique a hypothesis statement.
• Evaluate the structural aspects of a selected
hypothesis statement.
Directions for implementation. Examples of
hypotheses that can be used for this learning
activity can come from a variety of other studies
listed in either the textbook or the Instructor’s
Manual that accompanies it. To reinforce prior
learning, the students should review criteria 1
through 11. After the review, present several hy-
pothesis statements (a list of four to six should
suffice) in class. Students can refer to the text-
book for information about the criteria, or the
Critiquing Criteria can be duplicated and distrib-
uted for use during the actual critique. Groups of
three or four students should select two or three
hypothesis statements and discuss them, using
critiquing criteria 2 through 8. Small group dis-
cussions should last about 10 minutes per hy-
pothesis. An example of this activity is provided
on the Evolve site (see Critical Appraisal Activ-
ity, Chapter 4).
Guidelines for discussion. Each group can se-
lect one or two of the hypotheses evaluated and
share the evaluation with the rest of class. As the
instructor, you will embellish the students’ cri-
tiques, reinforcing their appropriate responses.
Your role also may consist of clarifying the estab-
lished criteria.
class discussion identify the characteristics that ap-
pear in their hypotheses; they should also identify
those that do not appear. Taking this a step further,
to enhance students’ ability to construct hypothesis
statements, you may want to have them reconstruct
their statements to include any omitted character-
istics. Then have the students compare their state-
ments to the hypothesis stated in the article.
d. Critiquing Hypothesis Statements
The purpose of the following learning activity is to
enhance students’ ability to evaluate the structural
aspects of a hypothesis statement, using criteria 1
through 11 identified under “The Hypotheses” in
the Critiquing Criteria box (p. 87 in the textbook).
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Use criteria 1 through 11 (see Critiquing Cri-
teria box) to critique a hypothesis statement.
• Evaluate the structural aspects of a selected
hypothesis statement.
Directions for implementation. Examples of
hypotheses that can be used for this learning
activity can come from a variety of other studies
listed in either the textbook or the Instructor’s
Manual that accompanies it. To reinforce prior
learning, the students should review criteria 1
through 11. After the review, present several hy-
pothesis statements (a list of four to six should
suffice) in class. Students can refer to the text-
book for information about the criteria, or the
Critiquing Criteria can be duplicated and distrib-
uted for use during the actual critique. Groups of
three or four students should select two or three
hypothesis statements and discuss them, using
critiquing criteria 2 through 8. Small group dis-
cussions should last about 10 minutes per hy-
pothesis. An example of this activity is provided
on the Evolve site (see Critical Appraisal Activ-
ity, Chapter 4).
Guidelines for discussion. Each group can se-
lect one or two of the hypotheses evaluated and
share the evaluation with the rest of class. As the
instructor, you will embellish the students’ cri-
tiques, reinforcing their appropriate responses.
Your role also may consist of clarifying the estab-
lished criteria.
Loading page 25...
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 5
Finding and Appraising
the Literature
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 5 introduces the student to the process of conducting a search and review of the literature
for a research study. The overall purposes of a literature review are described for quantitative and
qualitative research designs. Discussed in detail is the use of the literature review from the perspec-
tive of the investigator and the consumer, as well as the relationship of the literature review to
the following steps of the quantitative research process: (1) theoretical or conceptual framework,
(2) research question and hypothesis, (3) design and method, and (4) outcome of the analysis.
Both conceptual and data-based literature are discussed. Literature retrieval methods and schol-
arly research publications are also discussed, with emphasis on computer-generated strategies.
Numerous examples of primary and secondary journal articles, books, book chapters, and docu-
ments are provided. Extensive discussion is devoted to various databases and online resources,
including selected Web sites and the possible outcomes of using these sites. Also addressed are
the ways to begin and complete a literature search.
Recognizing the role of the nurse in research, the section on critiquing emphasizes the consumer
perspective and quantitative research, although reference is made to qualitative studies and the
different nature of the literature review for this kind of design.
Finding and Appraising
the Literature
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 5 introduces the student to the process of conducting a search and review of the literature
for a research study. The overall purposes of a literature review are described for quantitative and
qualitative research designs. Discussed in detail is the use of the literature review from the perspec-
tive of the investigator and the consumer, as well as the relationship of the literature review to
the following steps of the quantitative research process: (1) theoretical or conceptual framework,
(2) research question and hypothesis, (3) design and method, and (4) outcome of the analysis.
Both conceptual and data-based literature are discussed. Literature retrieval methods and schol-
arly research publications are also discussed, with emphasis on computer-generated strategies.
Numerous examples of primary and secondary journal articles, books, book chapters, and docu-
ments are provided. Extensive discussion is devoted to various databases and online resources,
including selected Web sites and the possible outcomes of using these sites. Also addressed are
the ways to begin and complete a literature search.
Recognizing the role of the nurse in research, the section on critiquing emphasizes the consumer
perspective and quantitative research, although reference is made to qualitative studies and the
different nature of the literature review for this kind of design.
Loading page 26...
26 CHAPTER 5 Finding and Appraising the Literature
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the relationship of the literature review to nursing theory, research, education, and practice.
• Discuss the purposes of the literature review from the perspective of the research investigator and the
research consumer.
• Discuss the use of the literature review for quantitative designs and qualitative methods.
• Discuss the purpose of reviewing the literature in the development of evidence-informed practice.
• Differentiate between primary and secondary sources.
• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used online databases and print
database sources for conducting a literature review.
• Identify the characteristics of an effective electronic search of the literature.
• Critically read, appraise, and synthesize primary and secondary sources used for the development of
a literature review.
• Apply critiquing criteria to the evaluation of literature reviews in selected research studies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the relationship of the literature review to nursing theory, research, education, and practice.
• Discuss the purposes of the literature review from the perspective of the research investigator and the
research consumer.
• Discuss the use of the literature review for quantitative designs and qualitative methods.
• Discuss the purpose of reviewing the literature in the development of evidence-informed practice.
• Differentiate between primary and secondary sources.
• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used online databases and print
database sources for conducting a literature review.
• Identify the characteristics of an effective electronic search of the literature.
• Critically read, appraise, and synthesize primary and secondary sources used for the development of
a literature review.
• Apply critiquing criteria to the evaluation of literature reviews in selected research studies
Loading page 27...
CHAPTER 5 Finding and Appraising the Literature 27
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Although students are not expected to develop an
extensive literature review during their research
course, they will need to be prepared to think crit-
ically and make judgements as to the merit of the
literature reviews they read in the professional lit-
erature. Therefore the nature and process of the
literature review form the basis for the following
teaching strategies.
1. Critical Challenges
For purposes of general discussion and critical
thinking, the following questions can be used:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What are the purposes of a literature review for
research investigator and research consumer
activities?
• What are conceptual and data-based literature?
• What are the differences between primary and
secondary sources of information?
• What are the characteristics of a written, rel-
evant literature review?
• What is the role of electronic databases in a
literature review?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does the literature review enable the
researcher to estimate the potential for success
of a study?
• How do you know that sufficient literature has
been reviewed?
• How is a literature review used in quantitative
versus qualitative research studies?
• How can you be sure that a literature review
has been approached critically?
You can engage students in a variety of discus-
sions based on the literature review of an assigned
article. These may include the following basic
questions:
• What is known about this problem?
• Does the literature review uncover knowledge?
• Does the literature review support the hypoth-
eses or research question(s)?
• Does the literature review uncover research find-
ings that support evidence-informed practice?
• What is the overall value of the literature
review in developing the knowledge base ne-
cessary to carry out the research?
Your goal here is to help students understand
the status of research in the identified problem
area.
2. Introducing Students to the Library
In an effort to bring meaning to the experience of
conducting a literature review, a trip to the library
is recommended. The reference librarian can be
tremendously helpful in providing explanations
about nursing and non-nursing indexes, what they
consist of, where to find them, and how to use
them. This person can field questions pertaining
to primary and secondary sources of information.
It may be advantageous to speak with the librarian
in advance of the library class to discuss the sub-
stance of the orientation and the students’ back-
ground in research. To be included is information
about how to conduct a computer search, where
measurement tools can be found, and how to use
a thesaurus for indexes. It also is helpful if the
librarian can demonstrate a search using one or
more electronic databases, using actual variables
pertinent to a clinical problem that you identify.
The library introduction should take 1-1/2 to
2 hours, or approximately one class session. After
the formal introduction by the librarian, students
should be encouraged to examine one or more of
the indexes relevant to nursing research. If pos-
sible, book a computer lab to allow the students
to access the electronic databases and practice
searching after the presentation.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Although students are not expected to develop an
extensive literature review during their research
course, they will need to be prepared to think crit-
ically and make judgements as to the merit of the
literature reviews they read in the professional lit-
erature. Therefore the nature and process of the
literature review form the basis for the following
teaching strategies.
1. Critical Challenges
For purposes of general discussion and critical
thinking, the following questions can be used:
RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING
• What are the purposes of a literature review for
research investigator and research consumer
activities?
• What are conceptual and data-based literature?
• What are the differences between primary and
secondary sources of information?
• What are the characteristics of a written, rel-
evant literature review?
• What is the role of electronic databases in a
literature review?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
• How does the literature review enable the
researcher to estimate the potential for success
of a study?
• How do you know that sufficient literature has
been reviewed?
• How is a literature review used in quantitative
versus qualitative research studies?
• How can you be sure that a literature review
has been approached critically?
You can engage students in a variety of discus-
sions based on the literature review of an assigned
article. These may include the following basic
questions:
• What is known about this problem?
• Does the literature review uncover knowledge?
• Does the literature review support the hypoth-
eses or research question(s)?
• Does the literature review uncover research find-
ings that support evidence-informed practice?
• What is the overall value of the literature
review in developing the knowledge base ne-
cessary to carry out the research?
Your goal here is to help students understand
the status of research in the identified problem
area.
2. Introducing Students to the Library
In an effort to bring meaning to the experience of
conducting a literature review, a trip to the library
is recommended. The reference librarian can be
tremendously helpful in providing explanations
about nursing and non-nursing indexes, what they
consist of, where to find them, and how to use
them. This person can field questions pertaining
to primary and secondary sources of information.
It may be advantageous to speak with the librarian
in advance of the library class to discuss the sub-
stance of the orientation and the students’ back-
ground in research. To be included is information
about how to conduct a computer search, where
measurement tools can be found, and how to use
a thesaurus for indexes. It also is helpful if the
librarian can demonstrate a search using one or
more electronic databases, using actual variables
pertinent to a clinical problem that you identify.
The library introduction should take 1-1/2 to
2 hours, or approximately one class session. After
the formal introduction by the librarian, students
should be encouraged to examine one or more of
the indexes relevant to nursing research. If pos-
sible, book a computer lab to allow the students
to access the electronic databases and practice
searching after the presentation.
Loading page 28...
28 CHAPTER 5 Finding and Appraising the Literature
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Identifying Strong and Weak Areas
of a Literature Review
The purpose of this learning activity is to help stu-
dents identify strong and weak areas of a selected
literature review. It gives students an opportunity
to critically appraise the content and style of at
least one published research report.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify all relevant variables discussed in the
selected literature review.
• Determine whether the essential variables are
discussed in the review.
• Determine the ratio of primary sources to sec-
ondary sources cited.
• Evaluate the review for completeness and evi-
dence of bias.
Directions for implementation. Students should
review Chapter 5 in the textbook. In addition, as-
sign a study for in-depth discussion and analysis
by students. Use one of the studies from the ap-
pendix of the textbook.
Based on the assigned study reading, ask students
to do the following:
• For quantitative articles, identify all the rel-
evant variables in the research question and
determine whether each was addressed in the
literature review. For qualitative articles, does
the literature review describe what is known
about the phenomenon under study?
• Determine what proportion of the bibliographic
citations in the literature review were primary
sources.
• Critically evaluate the literature review for evi-
dence of completeness and bias.
• Evaluate whether the literature review reflects
analysis and synthesis of material.
Guidelines for discussion. Engage students in a
discussion of the literature review presented in
the assigned paper. Students should use as a basis
for evaluating the adequacy of the review or the
critique criteria presented in Chapter 5 of the text-
book.
b. Primary and Secondary Sources of Information
This learning activity gives students an opportun-
ity to develop skill in differentiating primary from
secondary sources of information. Although a
sample reference list is provided in this exercise,
any list can be substituted.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify primary and secondary sources from
a reference list derived from a research report.
• Evaluate the adequacy of primary sources from
a reference list derived from a research report.
Directions for implementation. Hand out the
one-page activity (Figure 5-1 Primary and Sec-
ondary Sources of Information) found at the end
of this chapter, for completion in class. After
everyone has completed the activity, discuss the
students’ choices for each source and whether
the number of primary sources used is adequate.
Ask students to provide their rationale for each
response made.
c. Doing a Bibliographic Computer Search
• The purpose of this activity is to give students
an opportunity to conduct a computer search
of the literature.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Conduct a computer search.
• Compare two computer search methods and a
print resource.
3. Providing Experiential Learning
Activities
a. Identifying Strong and Weak Areas
of a Literature Review
The purpose of this learning activity is to help stu-
dents identify strong and weak areas of a selected
literature review. It gives students an opportunity
to critically appraise the content and style of at
least one published research report.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify all relevant variables discussed in the
selected literature review.
• Determine whether the essential variables are
discussed in the review.
• Determine the ratio of primary sources to sec-
ondary sources cited.
• Evaluate the review for completeness and evi-
dence of bias.
Directions for implementation. Students should
review Chapter 5 in the textbook. In addition, as-
sign a study for in-depth discussion and analysis
by students. Use one of the studies from the ap-
pendix of the textbook.
Based on the assigned study reading, ask students
to do the following:
• For quantitative articles, identify all the rel-
evant variables in the research question and
determine whether each was addressed in the
literature review. For qualitative articles, does
the literature review describe what is known
about the phenomenon under study?
• Determine what proportion of the bibliographic
citations in the literature review were primary
sources.
• Critically evaluate the literature review for evi-
dence of completeness and bias.
• Evaluate whether the literature review reflects
analysis and synthesis of material.
Guidelines for discussion. Engage students in a
discussion of the literature review presented in
the assigned paper. Students should use as a basis
for evaluating the adequacy of the review or the
critique criteria presented in Chapter 5 of the text-
book.
b. Primary and Secondary Sources of Information
This learning activity gives students an opportun-
ity to develop skill in differentiating primary from
secondary sources of information. Although a
sample reference list is provided in this exercise,
any list can be substituted.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Identify primary and secondary sources from
a reference list derived from a research report.
• Evaluate the adequacy of primary sources from
a reference list derived from a research report.
Directions for implementation. Hand out the
one-page activity (Figure 5-1 Primary and Sec-
ondary Sources of Information) found at the end
of this chapter, for completion in class. After
everyone has completed the activity, discuss the
students’ choices for each source and whether
the number of primary sources used is adequate.
Ask students to provide their rationale for each
response made.
c. Doing a Bibliographic Computer Search
• The purpose of this activity is to give students
an opportunity to conduct a computer search
of the literature.
Student objectives for the learning
activity:
• Conduct a computer search.
• Compare two computer search methods and a
print resource.
Loading page 29...
CHAPTER 5 Finding and Appraising the Literature 29
Directions for implementation. Help students
choose two variables of interest or assign group
projects to develop research-based clinical proto-
cols. The variables (or protocol topics) may be
ones you have previously discussed in class or
ones that students have as an assignment for
another course. After the variables (or protocol
topics) have been selected, students should do the
following:
• Spend 2 hours in the library doing a search of
the literature.
• If you used strategy 2 above, “Introducing
Students to the Library,” students should be
familiar with the librarians who can assist
them. If you have not used that strategy, inform
students of the appropriate reference librarian
to contact. The search should be limited to the
past 3 years, because computer time can be
expensive and a 3-year period is adequate to
make the point. Ask students to note how long
it takes the computer to process the search, in-
cluding printing out the references.
Guidelines for discussion. The following ques-
tions are suggested to stimulate discussion after
students have conducted their own computer
search:
1. How did you find key terms to begin the
search?
2. What tactics were effective?
3. How did you maximize results? Limit results?
4. How do you determine whether the results
were useful?
5. How do you access the full text?
6. Are accessing and reading full abstracts
useful?
Directions for implementation. Help students
choose two variables of interest or assign group
projects to develop research-based clinical proto-
cols. The variables (or protocol topics) may be
ones you have previously discussed in class or
ones that students have as an assignment for
another course. After the variables (or protocol
topics) have been selected, students should do the
following:
• Spend 2 hours in the library doing a search of
the literature.
• If you used strategy 2 above, “Introducing
Students to the Library,” students should be
familiar with the librarians who can assist
them. If you have not used that strategy, inform
students of the appropriate reference librarian
to contact. The search should be limited to the
past 3 years, because computer time can be
expensive and a 3-year period is adequate to
make the point. Ask students to note how long
it takes the computer to process the search, in-
cluding printing out the references.
Guidelines for discussion. The following ques-
tions are suggested to stimulate discussion after
students have conducted their own computer
search:
1. How did you find key terms to begin the
search?
2. What tactics were effective?
3. How did you maximize results? Limit results?
4. How do you determine whether the results
were useful?
5. How do you access the full text?
6. Are accessing and reading full abstracts
useful?
Loading page 30...
30 CHAPTER 5 Finding and Appraising the Literature
FIGURE 5-1. Primary and Secondary Sources of Information.
(Partial reference list from: Mahon, N.E., Yarcheski, A, & Yarcheski, T.J. (2000). Positive and negative outcomes
of anger in early adolescents. Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 177–24.)
FIGURE 5-1. Primary and Secondary Sources of Information.
(Partial reference list from: Mahon, N.E., Yarcheski, A, & Yarcheski, T.J. (2000). Positive and negative outcomes
of anger in early adolescents. Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 177–24.)
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Nursing