Perceiving The Arts: An Introduction To The Humanities, 11th Edition Test Bank

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iiiCONTENTSRESOURCESSuggestions for Using the TextivNotes on Artistic StylesviTEST QUESTIONSChapter 1Introduction: What Are the Arts and How Do We Respond to1and Evaluate Them?Chapter 2Pictures: Drawing, Painting, Printmaking, and Photography7Chapter 3Sculpture15Chapter 4Architecture20Chapter 5Music26Chapter 6Literature32Chapter 7Theatre37Chapter 8Cinema42Chapter 9Dance48

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ivRESOURCESSUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE TEXTThis text is a concentrated reference that covers all the arts. It is organized to provideconsistency in treatment from one arts discipline to another. Thus, teachers andstudents can find numerous ways of drawing comparisons among the arts. Makingsuch cross-disciplinary comparisons and investigations ought to be the crux of anyinterdisciplinary course. A series of truncated, “mini”-appreciation courses will notprovide much satisfaction or much understanding of the arts as a special way ofcommunicating and examining the world. One can create linkages among the arts inany number of ways and on any number of levels. For example, many terms, such asline, form, color, and so on, have both spatial and temporal inferences that can beexplored in order to bring music, visual art, literature, architecture, theatre, cinema, anddance together. On a deeper level, elements of style can be compared in order to see(and hear) how much the components of style work together to create visual or oralstatements that are very much like the statements of a similar style in a differentmedium. Determining how the characteristics of baroque visual art, for example, haveequivalents in baroque music provides a great challenge as well as satisfying rewards. Italso affords an opportunity for meaningful encounters with specific works of art.Making comparisons between and among works of art engages students directly.Noting how Painting A differs in its use of line from Painting B and how thosedifferences might affect our responses gets students to the nub of the matter andprovides a more substantive approach than asking them to respond to questions such as“How do you feel about it?” (Although that has its place in the response equation aswell.) Ultimately, students find consistent and manageable threads among the arts andfind the arts more accessible than they might have imagined. The British critic, PhilipRadcliffe, says that we must disassociate ourselves from “this mystique” that the arts“are terribly special things for terribly special people.”Perceiving the Arts’concentratedapproach assures students that they have the basic perceptual skills to experience thearts meaningfully and confidently. Having confidence and appreciating meaning areimportant factors in making the arts lifelong companions.Perceiving the Arts, with its compact, compendium-like approach, can be used either as aprimary or supplemental text. As a primary text, it requires that the teacher engagestudents in actual works of art and in enhanced exploration of the artistic media. As asupplementary text,Perceiving the Artscan provide teachers and students with basictechnical information about the arts that is usually not covered in primary texts dealing

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vwith cultural and artistic history. For example, Chapter 2 has a wealth of information onpainting and printmaking and on the color spectrum, hues, primary colors, and so on.Whether this textbook is used as a primary or supplemental text, its content providesconcise guidance for what can be seen and heard in works of art. Consequently,students will benefit from having their knowledge of the arts extended and the depthand value of their aesthetic experience increased.

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viNOTES ON ARTISTIC STYLESHere is an overview of important artistic styles that can assist in presenting the materialin the “A Question of Style” feature boxes throughout the text.Abstract Expressionism.Abstract Expressionism inpainting(mid-20thcentury) has twoidentifying characteristics. One characteristic is nontraditional brushwork, and the otheris nonrepresentational content. This approach leaves the artist free to reflect inner lifeand to create works with high emotional intensity. Absolute individuality of expressionand the freedom to be irrational underlie this style.Abstraction.Abstraction (20thcentury)paintingis “nonrepresentational” art. That is, itcontains minimal reference to natural objects, the objects in the world we perceivethrough our senses. Abstract art, in many ways, stands in contrast to impressionism andexpressionism in that the observer can read little or nothing in the painting of theartist’s feelings for anything outside the painting. Abstract painting explores theexpressive qualities of formal design elements and materials in their own right, andthese elements are assumed to stand apart from subject matter or content. Abstractioninsculpturepursues the goals of all abstract art, and that is to explore beauty in formalone; no other quality is needed. Abstraction as a style in sculpture is less concernedwith expressive content than other sculptural styles. The subject matter may, in fact, berepresentational, having abstract relationships to other styles of the past. Typical of thisstyle are highly finished surfaces and strong technique.Absurdism.Absurdism in thetheatre(20thcentury) reflects the loss of faith of itsadherents in religion, science, and humanity itself. It sees the world as meaningless andtranslates that into plays that seem meaningless as well. It is an outgrowth of thephilosophy of existentialism.Aleatory.Aleatoricmusic(mid-20thcentury) relies on the elements of chance. In chancemusic, composers choose pitches, rhythms, and tone colors by random methods such asthrowing coins. The composer may ask the performer to choose the ordering of themusical material, or to invent it altogether.Archaic.Archaic style (6thcentury B.C.E.) inarchitectureemploys post-and-lintelstructure and predominates in temples with imposing vertical posts or columns cappedby heavy lintels and a pedimented roof. Fluted, or vertically grooved, columns are alsotypical. This style has Doric features. Archaic style inpaintingcan be seen in Greekvases. Depictions of the human form appear in three-quarter position, between profileand full frontal. The human eye is depicted fairly realistically. This style also contains

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viigraduated registers (bands) that contain intricate and graceful geometric designs.Pottery of this style can be divided into two types:black figure, in which the figuresappear in black against the natural red background, andred figure,in which the figuresappear in the natural red clay against a glazed black background. Archaic Greek style insculpturemostly represents freestanding statues of nude youths, known askouroi. Theyexhibit a stiff, fully frontal pose. The head is raised, eyes are fixed to the front, and armshang straight down at the sides, with the fists clenched. The emphasis of these statues ison physicality and athleticism. The shoulders are broad, the pectoral muscles welldeveloped, and the waist narrow. The legs show the musculature of a finely tunedathlete with solid buttocks and hardened calves. Features are simplified, and theposture, despite the movement of one foot into the forward plane, is rigid. Fully dressedfemale forms in this style are known askore.Art Deco.Art deco (early 20thcentury) inarchitecturebegan between World Wars I andII. It is an individual decorative arts style that the public particularly liked and helpedto make thousands of products commercial successes. The term “art deco” was coinedfrom the name of the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et IndustrielsModernes, held in Paris in 1925. The termmodernealso came from that title, and the twostyles were applied to a variety of products and a style of architecture. The style ischaracterized by slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of moderntechnology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s.Art Nouveau.Art nouveauarchitecture(late 19th—early 20thcenturies) is characterizedby the lively, serpentine curve known as the “whiplash.” Art nouveau incorporatesorganic and often symbolic motifs, usually languid-looking flowers and animals, andtreats them in a flat, linear, and relief-like manner.Baroque.Baroque style (17thcentury) inarchitectureemphasizes the same contrastsbetween light and shade and the same action, emotion, opulence, and ornamentation asthe other visual arts of the style. Because of its scale, however, architecture’s effectbecomes one of great dramatic spectacles. Baroque style inpaintingappeals to theemotions and to a desire for magnificence through opulent ornamentation. At the sametime, it employs a systematic and rational composition in which ornamentation isunified through variation on a single theme. Realism (lifelikeness using selected details)is the objective. Color, grandeur, and dramatic use of light and shade (chiaroscuro) arefairly typical, although the style itself is quite diverse in application. In much of baroqueart, sophisticated organizational schemes carefully subordinate and merge one part intothe next to create complex but unified wholes. Open composition symbolizes the notionof an expansive universe; the viewer’s eye travels off the canvas to a wider reality. Thehuman figure may be monumental or miniscule. Feeling is emphasized rather than

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viiiform; emotion rather than intellect. This is the style of Rubens and Rembrandt. Baroquestyle insculptureemphasizes splendor. Forms and space are charged with energy thatcarries beyond the confines of the work. As in painting, baroque sculpture invitesparticipation rather than neutral observation. Feeling is the focus. Baroque sculpturetends to treat space pictorially, almost like a painting, to describe action scenes ratherthan single sculptural forms. Baroque style inmusicextends from 1600–1750 (slightlylonger than in the other arts, in deference to the life spans of J. S. Bach and G. F.Handel). The term “baroque” originally referred to a large, irregularly shaped pearl,and music of this style has many of the same opulent and emotionally appealingcharacteristics as its siblings of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Baroquecomposers brought to their music new kinds of action and tension—for example, quick,strong contrasts in tone color or volume, and strict rhythms juxtaposed against freerhythms. This is the music of Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi.Bauhaus.Bauhaus style inarchitecture(early 20thcentury) was a conscious attempt tointegrate the arts into a unified statement. The Bauhaus philosophy sought to establishlinks between the organic and technical worlds and thereby to reduce contrasts betweenthe two. The design principles of Bauhaus produced building exteriors that werecompletely free of ornamentation. Several juxtaposed, functional materials form theexternal surface, underscoring the fact that exterior walls are no longer structural, butmerely a climate barrier.Byzantine.Byzantine style (6ththrough mid-15thcenturies) inarchitecturefollows afairly typical form consisting of a central dome with a grouping of three apses at theEast end. The entire space describes a cross-in-square layout. Byzantine style intwo-dimensional artreflects a diversity of approaches. Most commonly, it reflects thehieratic style (typically mosaics and manuscript illuminations). The word hieraticmeans “holy” or “sacred” and exhibits formal, almost rigid figures designed to inspirereverence and meditation and reflects a strict canon, whereby the human bodymeasures nine heads in height (seven heads gives a lifelike proportion).Classicism.Greek classicism (mid-5thcentury B.C.E) inarchitecturerests, as do allclassical styles, on the principles of simplicity, harmony, restraint, proportion, andreason. It finds its best examples in temples like the Parthenon in Athens, Greece. Thisstyle is the prototype for buildings throughout western culture, and its balance comesfrom geometric symmetry and clean, simple lines. Many Greek temples of the classicalstyle areperipteral—that is, surrounded by a single row of columns. The style employsDoric and Ionic orders, with the Corinthian order added in the 4thcentury B.C.E. Greekclassicism inpaintingis seen exclusively in vases. The geometric nature of the designsof vase paintings in this style remains from the earlier Archaic, but there is a new sense

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ixof idealized, but lifelike, reality in figure depiction. Foreshortening (the contracting oflines to produce an illusion of projection in space) occurs, giving the figures a sense ofdepth that in some cases is strengthened by the use of light and shadow. Fourcharacteristics define the style: (1) the figures are portrayed in simple line drawings; (2)the palette or color scheme is monochromatic—for example, red on black or black onred; (3) the palette depends on earthen tones; and (4) the subject matter is idealized andheroic. Greek classical style insculpturebegan with the sculptors Myron and Polyclitus.The human figure is elegantly idealized, with subtle variation in fabric depiction.Balance departs from symmetry: the weight of the figure is slightly shifted to one leg,and the head turns away from the centerline. This produces an S-curve in the figurecalledcontroppostostance. Greek classicism intheatrealso pursues the ideals ofsimplicity, harmony, restraint, proportion, and reason. The playwrights Aeschylus,Sophocles, and Euripides provide the only extant examples. Remains of Greek classicaltheatres dot the Mediterranean from Athens to Turkey and North Africa.Cubism.Cubism inpainting(early 20thcentury) violates all usual concepts of two- andthree-dimensional perspective. Cubist artists sought to paint “not objects, but the spacethey engender.” The area around the object becomes an extension of the object itself.Cubist space is typically quite shallow and gives the impression of reaching forwardout of the frontal plane toward the viewer. Cubism also found an outlet inarchitecture.Examples can be found in Prague, Czech Republic.Dada.Dada is an anti-art style (early 20thcentury) that was a disillusioned reactionagainst the horrors of World War I. The worddadais French for hobbyhorse, but theDadaists accepted it as two nonsense syllables, like one of a baby’s first words. Dadawas as much a political protest as an art movement.Epic Theatre.Epic theatre (mid-20thcentury) is singularly associated with BertholtBrecht (1898–1956). Epic theatre draws heavily on expressionism and rests on complextheories about theatre and its relationship to life. It is a revolt against dramatic theatreand attempts to move the audience out of the role of passive spectator and into a moredynamic relationship with the play. It is a highly presentational theatrical style andfrequently involves narration and changes of time and place that might beaccomplished with nothing more than an explanatory sentence.Expressionism.Expressionism (early 20thcentury) inpaintingtraditionally refers to aGerman movement between 1905 and 1930. It also includes a variety of approachesaimed at eliciting in the viewer the same feelings the artist felt in creating the work. Anyelement—line, form, color—might be emphasized to elicit this response. Its treatment ofsubject matter ranges from representational to completely abstract or

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xnonrepresentational. Expressionism inmusicstressed intense subjective emotion. It isclosely associated with expressionism in painting and explores inner feelings ratherthan outward appearances. Characteristic of the style in music is harsh dissonance andfragmentation, and the exploitation of extreme registers and unusual instrumentaleffects. Tonality and traditional chord progressions are avoided. Expressionism in thetheatre, unlike its counterparts in visual art and music, proved merely an extension ofrealism or naturalism, but it did allow playwrights to express their reactions to theuniverse more fully. The subjective distortions characteristic of expressionism in visualart can be seen most clearly in similar visualization in scenic design or stage settings.Fauvism.Fauvism inpainting(early 20thcentury) is closely associated withexpressionism. The wordfauvesis French for “wild beasts” and was applied by a critic.Violent distortion and outrageous coloring mark this style, along with two-dimensionalsurfaces and flat color areas.Futurism.Futurism insculpture(early 20thcentury) utilized new materials andtechnology to explore three-dimensional space. It sought to destroy the past in order toinstitute a totally new society and a new art. Its basis rests in the objects of “modern”life and focuses on noise, speed, and mechanical energy—exhilaration. Futurist worksfollow mechanistic lines and include representations of motion.Gothic.Gothic style (12thto 13thcenturies) inarchitecturetook many forms, but weknow it best through the Gothic cathedral, exemplified by the pointed, lancet, or Gothicarch. In its synthesis of intellect, spirituality, and engineering, the cathedral perfectlyexpresses the medieval mind. Gothic cathedrals use refined, upward-striving lines tosymbolize humanity’s yearning to escape the bounds of earth and enter the mystery ofspace (the kingdom of heaven). The pointed arch symbolizes Gothic spirituality andengineering practicality. The control of stresses made possible by the Gothic arch allowsfor larger clerestory windows and more interior light. In Germany, one finds a kind ofGothic construction calledhallenkirchen, whose side aisles rise to the full height of thenave, unlike traditional Gothic style wherein the aisles are lower than the nave in orderto accommodate clerestory windows in the upper walls of the nave. Gothicsculptureportrays serenity, idealism, and simple naturalism. It has a human quality portrayinglife as valuable, Christ as a benevolent teacher, and God as awesome in his beautyrather than in his vengeance. Visual images carry over a distance with greaterdistinctness, and the figures of Gothic sculpture—still predominantly associated withchurches—are less entrapped in their material away from their backgrounds than theirpredecessors.

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xiGregorian Chant.Gregorian chant (named for Pope Gregory I [540–604]) comprises abody of sacred—that is, religious—music also calledchant, plainchant,orplainsong.Chant was vocal and took the form of a single melodic line (monophony) using notesrelatively near each other on the musical scale. The haunting, undulating character ofearly chant possibly points to Near Eastern origins. Chants were sung in a flexibletempo with unmeasured rhythms following the natural accents of normal Latin speech.Hard Edge.Hard edge (1950s and 1960s), or hard-edged abstraction, inpaintingemphasizes flat color areas with hard edges that carefully separate one area fromanother. Essentially, hard edge is an exploration of design for its own sake.High Renaissance.High Renaissance (late 15thto early 16thcenturies)paintingsought auniversal ideal through impressive themes and styles. Figures became types rather thanindividuals as painters sought to capture classical qualities without copying classicalworks. The impact is stability without immobility, variety without confusion, anddefinition without dullness. Composition is meticulous and based almost exclusively ongeometric devices such as a triangle or an oval. Composition is closed—that is, line,color, and form keep the viewer’s eye continually redirected into the work. This style isthe style of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. High Renaissancesculpturealso sought a universal ideal through impressive themes and styles. Figures becametypes rather than individuals and measurement became subordinate to judgment whenestablishing proportions. Surface texture takes on the soft luster of actual flesh in itshigh polish. The dominant figure of this style is Michelangelo.Impressionism.Impressionism (19thcentury) inpaintingfollowed the realists’ searchfor spontaneity, harmonious colors, subjects from everyday life, and faithfulness toobserved lighting and atmospheric effects by seeking to capture the psychologicalperception of reality in color and motion. The concentration is on the effects of naturallight on objects and atmosphere. Impressionists emphasize the presence of color withinshadows and the result of color and light making an “impression” on the retina.Impressionism inmusicis an anti-romantic style analogous to impressionism inpainting. It freely challenges traditional tonality. The use of tone color in impressionistmusic has been described as “wedges of color.” Oriental influence is also present.Melodic development occurs in short motifs and harmony moves away from traditionalchordal harmonies. A chord is considered strictly on the merits of its expressivecapabilities, apart from any idea of tonal progression within a key. Gliding chords—thatis, repetition of a chord up and down the scale—is a hallmark of impressionism inmusic.

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xiiInternational Style.International style inarchitecture(mid-20thcentury) typicallyconsists of the glass and steel rectangular skyscraper, also referred to as “modernarchitecture.”Islamic.Islamic style inarchitecture(7thcentury onward) typically employs thehorseshoe or Moorish arch. The style is found throughout the Middle East and insouthern Spain, with later derivatives throughout Europe and America. When appliedto a mosque, the most distinguishing feature becomes the narrow, circular minaret, ortower, from which a muezzin offers the call to prayer five times daily.Jazz.Jazz (originating early 20thcentury and ongoing) began as a combination ofelements from many cultures, including West African, American, and European.Mostly, its creators were African-American musicians who performed in the streets,bars, brothels, and dance halls of New Orleans and other southern cities. It is highlyimprovisational in nature and typically employs syncopated rhythm, a steady beat, anddistinctive tone colors and performance techniques. It contains a number of sub-stylessuch as Dixieland, swing, bebop, cool jazz, free jazz, and jazz rock. Typically jazz isperformed by small combos ranging from three to eight players or by “big bands” of tento fifteen players. The rhythm section (piano, plucked double bass, and percussion)tends to be the backbone of the jazz ensemble.Mannerism.Mannerist (mid- to late 16thcentury)architectureutilizes discomfitingdesigns of superficial detail and unusual proportions, with juxtapositions of curvilinearand rectilinear items. Decorative detail is applied to exterior wall surfaces in theRenaissance fashion, but flattened domes and shallow arches replace mathematicalproportions. Manneristpaintingtakes its name from the mannered or affectedappearance of the subjects in the paintings. These works are coldly formal and inwardlooking. Their unlifelike proportions, icy stares, and subjective viewpoint can bepuzzling and intriguing when seen out of context. Mannerism has an intellectualcomponent that distorts reality, alters space, and often makes obscure cultural allusions.It contains anti-classical emotionalism and abandons classical balance and form whileemploying formality and geometry.Minimalism.Minimalism inpaintingandsculpture(1950s and 1960s) sought to reducethe complexity of both design and content as far as possible. Minimalist artistsconcentrated on nonsensual, impersonal, geometric shapes and forms. Nocommunication was to pass between artist and respondent; no message was to beconveyed. Rather, the minimalists wanted to present neutral objects free of their owninterpretations and leave response and “meaning” entirely up to the viewer.Minimalism inmusic(1960s) was a reaction against the complexity of serialism and the

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xiiirandomness of aleatory music. Minimalist music has a steady pulse, clear tonality, andpersistent repetition of short melodic patterns. It also employs a static quality indynamics, texture, and harmony, the effect of which tends to be trance-like andhypnotic.Modern.Modernism (mid-20thcentury) inarchitectureis a style blurred by thecontributions of architectural firms rather than individual architects. What is considered“modernism” in architecture generally consists of the glass and steel rectangularskyscraper also identified as “International Style.” There is more, however, than thesimple straight line and functional structure. Modern architecture consists of a varietyof explorations of space and line including curvilinear treatments and highly symbolicexploration of form. Although the term“modern dance”defies accurate definition, itremains the most appropriate label for the nonballetic tradition that Martha Grahamcame to symbolize. Yet, principally because it tried so hard to be different from formalballet, modern dance also developed its own conventions. Ballet movements werelargely rounded and symmetrical. Therefore, modern dancers emphasized angularityand asymmetry. Ballet stressed leaps and based its line on toe work, while moderndance hugged the floor and dancers went barefoot. As a result, the early works ofGraham and others tended to be more fierce and earthy and less graceful. Beneath it allwas the desire to express emotion. Martha Graham described her choreography as “agraph of the heart.”Musique Actuelle.Musique actuelle (1990s) is improvised music freely drawing on jazzand rock and eliciting vibrancy, liveliness, and personal expression. Its literaltranslation means “current,” and it represents a number of sub-factions from variouslocalities. Always in musique actuelle there seems to be a strain of humor.Naturalism.Naturalism in thetheatre(late 19thcentury) is a style closely related torealism. It also insisted on the truthful depiction of life, but naturalism went on to insiston the basic principle that behavior is determined by heredity and environment.Absolute objectivity, not personal opinion, was the naturalist’s goal. Naturalism inopera(late 19thcentury) was a counter-reaction to Romanticism. It opposed stylization,although it maintained exotic settings and included brute force and immorality. Its textsare in prose rather than poetry, and its settings appear lifelike.Neo-abstraction.Neo-abstraction (mid-1980s) is a conglomerate style, likepostmodernism, comprising mostly individualistic approaches. Like thepostmodernists, the neo-abstractionists borrow freely from others by modifying orchanging the scale, media, or color of older works to give them a new framework and,

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xivhence, new meaning. Occasionally, the new meanings include sarcasm and satire andoften comment on the decadence of American society in the 1980s.Neoclassicism. Architecturalneoclassicism (18thcentury) sought to embrace thecomplex philosophical concerns of the 18thcentury Enlightenment. The result is a seriesof styles and sub-styles. Neoclassicism offered a new way of examining the past.Eclectic, as well as historical, architectural neoclassicism exhibits a variety of treatmentsof forms of Greek and Roman classicism—for example, clearly stated Doric, Ionic, andCorinthian porches with pedimented rooflines. Neoclassicism inpainting(18thcentury)reflects a perception of grandeur in antiquity. Classical details appear selectively. Often,the style is characterized by starkness of outline, strong geometric composition, andsmooth color areas and gradations reflecting the formality of the classical tradition. Thedetails of neoclassical paintings move toward the surface, appearing as if in a shallowpicture box defined by simple architectural frameworks. Neoclassicism insculpture(18thcentury), like painting, reflects a perception of grandeur in antiquity. It frequentlymanifests itself in life-sized portrait busts that exhibit acute psychological observationand accurate technical execution. Works in this style seem to pursue truth throughlifelikeness. Neoclassicaltheatreis a style occurring simultaneously with Baroque stylein music, visual art, and architecture (1550–1720). The term “neoclassicism” or “new”classicism refers to the attempt by the French literary Academy to recreate the dramaticstructure of Greek classical playwrights such as Sophocles. Plays of this style had to bewritten according to specific “rules” thought to adhere to the “Unities” described byAristotle. Specifically, the action of the play must occur in a single location andencompass no more than 24 hours. The major playwrights of this style were thetragedians Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine, with Molière providing comedies set inbaroque ambiance.Musicalclassicism (18thcentury) rejected what was seen as excessiveornamentation and complexity in Baroque music and aimed toward a broad audienceappeal. The style, reflecting the ideals of general classicism, sought to achieve order,simplicity, and careful attention to form. The style is called “classical” rather thanneoclassical because music had no classical (Greek or Roman) antecedents to which itcould turn. It is, thus, classical in ideal rather than model. The classical style in musicexhibits five basic characteristics: (1) variety and contrast in mood; (2) flexibility ofrhythm; (3) predominantly homophonic texture; (4) memorable melody; and (5) gradualchanges in dynamics.Neoclassicisminmusic(20thcentury) is marked by emotionalrestraint, balance, and clarity. Neoclassical music utilizes forms and stylistic features ofearlier periods, particularly the 18thcentury. It, however, does not merely revive earlierclassical music. Rather, it uses earlier techniques to organize modern harmonies andrhythms. Much neoclassical music is modeled on J. S. Bach, giving rise to the conclusionthat neobaroque might also be a fair description. The two principal composers in thisstyle are Stravinsky and Hindemith.

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xvNeo-expressionism.Neo-expressionism (late 20thcentury) is a controversial movementthat tends to record images “that the rest of us repress.” Typically,paintingsof thisstyle force the viewer to confront what may be considered repulsive images. Like theexpressionists, neo-expressionists seek to evoke a particular emotional response in theviewer.Op Art.Op art (late 20thcentury) inpaintingplays on the possibilities offered by opticsand perception. Op art is an intellectually-oriented and systematic style, very scientificin its applications. Based on perceptual tricks, the misleading images in these paintingscapture the viewer’s curiosity and pull them into a conscious exploration of what theoptical illusion does and why it does it.Pop Art.Pop art (1950s) inpaintingconcerned itself, above all, with representationalimages. The term “pop” was coined by the English critic Lawrence Alloway, andmeans, simply, that the subjects of these paintings are found in popular culture. Thetreatments of pop art also came from mass culture and commercial design.Post-impressionism.Post-impressionism inpainting(late 19thcentury) is a collection ofdisparate styles. In subject matter, post-impressionism is similar to impressionism—landscapes, familiar portraits, groups, and café and nightclub scenes imbued with acomplex and profoundly personal significance. It is an “art for art’s sake” philosophyfull of subjective impressions. Post-impressionism seeks a return to form and structurein painting, and utilizes formal patterning with clean color areas.Postmodernism.In the arts, postmodernism (late 20thcentury; “pomo” for short) isdistinguished by eclecticism and anachronism, in which works may reflect andcomment on a wide range of stylistic expressions and cultural-historical viewpoints.Often this results in an embrace of normlessness and cultural chaos, as well as aconscious attempt to break down distinctions between “high art” and popular culture.One example isperformance art, which often involves a provocative mingling ofmusical, literary, and visual sources. The artist’s self-conscious display of technique andartifice puts self-reference at the center of creation and presentation. Postmodern or“revisionist”architecturetakes, without copying, different themes from the past, but inan eclectic manner, seizing certain moments in history and juxtaposing them.Postmodern architecture focuses on meaning and symbolism. Function no longerdictates form. Buildings explore the context of society and the environment. Its goals aresocial identity, cultural continuity, and sense of place. Postmodernism invisual artsis,likewise, highly individualistic, although some artists prefer to return art to theanonymity of pre-Renaissance times. One recognizable aspect of post-modernist stylesappears to be a desire to return recognizable content or meaning to works of art, and

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xvithe artists following these paths were reacting to what they felt was a clutter and lack ofcontent in previous styles. One common theme apparently shared by postmodernists isa basic concern for how art functions in society. Postmodernism indance, like the otherarts, seeks the interrelationships between art and life. Typically, it rejects traditionalchoreography and technique in favor of open-ended scores and ordinary movement.Prairie Style.Prairie Style inarchitecture(early 20thcentury)is a style singular to thearchitect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959). The style relies on strong horizontal lines, inimitation of the flatness of the American prairies, and insists on the integration of thecontext of the building and the creation of indoor space that is an extension of outdoorspace.Precisionism.Precisionism inpainting(early 20thcentury) is the arrangement of realobjects into abstract groupings. These paintings often use the strong vibrant colors ofcommercial art and constitute a forerunner of Pop Art.Primary Structures.Primary Structures (late 20thcentury) is a movement insculpturethat pursues two major goals: extreme simplicity of shapes and a kinship witharchitecture. A space-time relationship distinguishes primary structures from othersculpture. Viewers are invited to share an experience in three-dimensional space inwhich they can walk around and/or through the works. Form and content are reducedto their most “minimal” qualities.Realism.Realism inpainting(19thcentury) sought to make an objective andunprejudiced record of the customs, ideas, and appearances of contemporary society.By selectively choosing details, realism in painting sought to go beyond the obvious to adeeper sense of reality. This was done through spontaneity, harmonious colors, subjectsfrom everyday life, and faithfulness to observed lighting and atmospheric effects.Realism in thetheatre(mid-19thcentury) sought a truthful portrayal of the world.Objectivity was stressed, and knowledge of the real world was seen as possible onlythrough direct observation (similar to painting). Thus, everyday life, with which theplaywright was directly familiar, became the subject matter of dramas. The focus wason human motives and experience.Renaissance.Renaissance (14thto 15thcenturies)architecturesought to capture theforms and ideals of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and follow human rather thanecclesiastical principles and potentials. Three principal changes separate Renaissancestyle from its predecessors: (1) there is a mechanical and geometric revival of Romanbuildings; (2) decorative detail appears on the facades of buildings; and (3) structuralsystems are hidden from view.Paintingin the Renaissance style has a gravity and

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xviimonumentality that makes figures seem larger than life-size. The use of deepperspective and modeling to create dramatic contrasts gives solidity to the figures andunifies the paintings. Atmospheric perspective enhances deep spatial naturalism.Figures are strong, detailed, and very human. At the same time, the compositioncarefully subordinates the parts of the painting to the whole. Renaissancesculpturereflects a newly developed skill in creating images of great lifelikeness, but the goal ofRenaissance sculptors, unlike the classical Greeks, was not to idealize human form butto portray it in a more complex, balanced, and action-filled dimension. Relief sculptureof this style found new ways of representing deep space through the systematic use ofperspective. Freestanding sculpture dominated and exhibited a focus on anatomy.Renaissance sculpture’s best examples are those of Donatello and Ghiberti.Rock and Roll (Rock).Rock and Roll (1950s) or Rock, as it later became known,includes a variety of sub-styles including Soul and Punk. Rock is typically vocal musicwith a hard, driving beat in quadruple meter with strong accents on the second andfourth beats. It often features electric guitar accompaniment and heavy amplification ofsound and is usually written in a 12-bar blues form. It is an outgrowth of rhythm andblues and country and western.Soul musicis a variety of rock and roll emerging in the1960s from black performers and emphasizes emotionality, gospel, and the African-American experience.Punk,orNew Wave, is a primitive form of rock and roll.Rhythmand bluesis a dance music of African-Americans that joins blues, jazz and gospel styles.Country and Westernis a folk-like, guitar-based style typically associated with ruralwhite America.Rococo.Rococo style (18thcentury) inarchitecture, unlike most previous architecturalstyles, was primarily a style of interior design. Its refinement and decorativenessapplied to furniture and décor more than to exterior structure or even detail. At thistime in history, the aristocracy lived principally in attached row houses and simply hadno exteriors to design. The result was a delicate style with pseudonatural effectstypified by curved leg furniture, cornices, and gilded carvings creating a pleasantatmosphere of grace and propriety. Rococo style inpaintingis essentially a decorousstyle exhibiting intimate grace, charm, and delicate superficiality. Its scenes portraylively effervescence and melodrama with predominant themes of love, friendship,sentiment, pleasure, and sincerity. A frivolous “naughtiness” often pervades paintingsof this style. Rococo style insculpture, like painting, is decorous, intimate, graceful,charming, and delicately superficial. Cupids, nymphs, and Venus, the goddess of love,are frequent subjects, and their mythological character usually has a contemporarymeaning. Love, friendship, sentiment, and pleasure are frequent themes, as in painting.The scale of Rococo sculpture is less monumental than the Baroque. It often takes the

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