Class Notes for Exploring Marriages and Families, 3rd Edition
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank
For
Exploring Marriages
& Families
Third Edition
Karen Seccombe
Portland State University
Prepared by
SME, Melissa O’Connor
Canisius College
For
Exploring Marriages
& Families
Third Edition
Karen Seccombe
Portland State University
Prepared by
SME, Melissa O’Connor
Canisius College
Contents
Chapter 1 Why Study Families and Other Close Relationships? 1
Chapter 2 Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class 15
Chapter 3 Building Relationships 27
Chapter 4 Love and Loving Relationships 38
Chapter 5 Sexual Identity, Behavior, and Relationships 48
Chapter 6 Communication, Conflict, and Power in Our Relationships 61
Chapter 7 Marriage 71
Chapter 8 Thinking about Parenthood 81
Chapter 9 Raising Children 91
Chapter 10 Families and the Work They Do 102
Chapter 11 Family Stress and Crisis: Violence among Intimates 113
Chapter 12 The Process of Divorce 125
Chapter 13 Family Life, Partnering, and Remarriage after Divorce 135
Chapter 14 Families in Middle and Later Life 144
Chapter 15 Looking Ahead: Helping Families Flourish 156
Chapter 1 Why Study Families and Other Close Relationships? 1
Chapter 2 Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class 15
Chapter 3 Building Relationships 27
Chapter 4 Love and Loving Relationships 38
Chapter 5 Sexual Identity, Behavior, and Relationships 48
Chapter 6 Communication, Conflict, and Power in Our Relationships 61
Chapter 7 Marriage 71
Chapter 8 Thinking about Parenthood 81
Chapter 9 Raising Children 91
Chapter 10 Families and the Work They Do 102
Chapter 11 Family Stress and Crisis: Violence among Intimates 113
Chapter 12 The Process of Divorce 125
Chapter 13 Family Life, Partnering, and Remarriage after Divorce 135
Chapter 14 Families in Middle and Later Life 144
Chapter 15 Looking Ahead: Helping Families Flourish 156
1
CHAPTER 1
Why Study Families and other close
Relationships?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Family can be defined as a relationship by blood, marriage, or affection, in which members may
cooperate economically, may care for children, and may consider their identity to be intimately
connected to the larger group. While important differences may exist among families, there are
some important universal patterns. These include regulating sexual behavior, reproduction and so-
cialization of children, property and inheritance laws, economic cooperation, and social placement
of family members. Social structures like the economy, government, religion, and education affect
family structures. Important family structures include statuses and roles; other important patterns
that affect family structure and family dynamics include marriage patterns (e.g., monogamy versus
polygamy), patterns of authority (e.g., patriarchy versus egalitarianism), patterns of descent (bi-
lateral, patrilineal, and matrilineal), and residence patterns (neolocal, patrilocal, and matrilo-
cal). Research demonstrates that families are always in transition; many important changes in the
family have been documented in both China and the United States. Many of these changes concern
urbanization and industrialization. Social science theory and research play an important role in
helping family researchers objectively understand families and family dynamics. The major re-
search methods used by researchers include surveys, in-depth interview, experiments, focus
groups, observational study, and secondary analysis. Theories help us frame research questions
and analyze data. Some theories focus on macro-level phenomena (structural functionalism, con-
flict theory, and feminist theory), while others focus on micro-level phenomena (social exchange
theory, symbolic interactionism, developmental theory, and systems theory).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to:
1. Identify the different definitions of “family” and their implications.
2. Describe the functions of families.
3. Recognize the link between micro-level and macro-level perspectives on families.
4. Assess the ways that families are always changing.
5. Summarize the importance of social science theory and research.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. HOW DO WE DEFINE
FAMILY?
A. The question of how to define the concept of family may seem simple, but it can have a
surprisingly complex answer.
CHAPTER 1
Why Study Families and other close
Relationships?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Family can be defined as a relationship by blood, marriage, or affection, in which members may
cooperate economically, may care for children, and may consider their identity to be intimately
connected to the larger group. While important differences may exist among families, there are
some important universal patterns. These include regulating sexual behavior, reproduction and so-
cialization of children, property and inheritance laws, economic cooperation, and social placement
of family members. Social structures like the economy, government, religion, and education affect
family structures. Important family structures include statuses and roles; other important patterns
that affect family structure and family dynamics include marriage patterns (e.g., monogamy versus
polygamy), patterns of authority (e.g., patriarchy versus egalitarianism), patterns of descent (bi-
lateral, patrilineal, and matrilineal), and residence patterns (neolocal, patrilocal, and matrilo-
cal). Research demonstrates that families are always in transition; many important changes in the
family have been documented in both China and the United States. Many of these changes concern
urbanization and industrialization. Social science theory and research play an important role in
helping family researchers objectively understand families and family dynamics. The major re-
search methods used by researchers include surveys, in-depth interview, experiments, focus
groups, observational study, and secondary analysis. Theories help us frame research questions
and analyze data. Some theories focus on macro-level phenomena (structural functionalism, con-
flict theory, and feminist theory), while others focus on micro-level phenomena (social exchange
theory, symbolic interactionism, developmental theory, and systems theory).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to:
1. Identify the different definitions of “family” and their implications.
2. Describe the functions of families.
3. Recognize the link between micro-level and macro-level perspectives on families.
4. Assess the ways that families are always changing.
5. Summarize the importance of social science theory and research.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. HOW DO WE DEFINE
FAMILY?
A. The question of how to define the concept of family may seem simple, but it can have a
surprisingly complex answer.
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2 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
B. The number of traditional two-parent heterosexual parent families has declined, while the
number of nontraditional families is on the rise.
1. Nontraditional family forms include childfree married couples, multigenerational
families, unmarried adults who cohabitate and sometimes have children, stepparents
whose stepchildren reside with them only part of the time, and gay and lesbian cou-
ples are increasing in number.
2. Diversity in family forms increases the difficulty of providing an adequate defini-
tion.
C. Legal versus Social Science Definitions
1. The U.S. Census Bureau defines family as two or more people living together who
are related by birth, marriage, or adoption.
a) This definition excludes heterosexual or homosexual unmarried partners, and is
used as the basis for many social programs and policies.
b) Many people object to this definition because it excludes groups that consider
themselves to be family.
D. This text uses a more inclusive definition, and proposes that a family is a relationship by
blood, marriage, or affection, in which members may cooperate economically, may care
for children, and may consider their identity to be intimately connected to the larger
group.
1. It includes the family of orientation, or the one into which a person is born.
2. It includes the family of procreation, or the one a person creates by marrying,
partnering, or becoming a parent.
E. The text includes fictive kin in its definition of family.
1. Fictive kin are nonrelatives whose bonds are strong and intimate.
2. These persons provide important services and care for individuals; yet they are not
allowed to claim benefits that traditional family members can expect to receive (tax
benefits or health insurance).
F. Why Are Definitions So Important?
1. Societal definitions of concepts like the family have consequences for rights and
privileges, including health insurance and Social Security benefits.
a) Unmarried partners cannot file a joint tax return.
b) The offspring of an employed person may receive health insurance benefits,
while the unmarried partner may be excluded.
c) Unmarried partners are not eligible for membership discounts.
II. THE FUNCTIONS OF FAMILIES
A. Despite some differences, family forms are remarkably similar across time and place.
1. All societies have marriage, a public, institutional arrangement between persons to
recognize social and intimate bonds.
B. The number of traditional two-parent heterosexual parent families has declined, while the
number of nontraditional families is on the rise.
1. Nontraditional family forms include childfree married couples, multigenerational
families, unmarried adults who cohabitate and sometimes have children, stepparents
whose stepchildren reside with them only part of the time, and gay and lesbian cou-
ples are increasing in number.
2. Diversity in family forms increases the difficulty of providing an adequate defini-
tion.
C. Legal versus Social Science Definitions
1. The U.S. Census Bureau defines family as two or more people living together who
are related by birth, marriage, or adoption.
a) This definition excludes heterosexual or homosexual unmarried partners, and is
used as the basis for many social programs and policies.
b) Many people object to this definition because it excludes groups that consider
themselves to be family.
D. This text uses a more inclusive definition, and proposes that a family is a relationship by
blood, marriage, or affection, in which members may cooperate economically, may care
for children, and may consider their identity to be intimately connected to the larger
group.
1. It includes the family of orientation, or the one into which a person is born.
2. It includes the family of procreation, or the one a person creates by marrying,
partnering, or becoming a parent.
E. The text includes fictive kin in its definition of family.
1. Fictive kin are nonrelatives whose bonds are strong and intimate.
2. These persons provide important services and care for individuals; yet they are not
allowed to claim benefits that traditional family members can expect to receive (tax
benefits or health insurance).
F. Why Are Definitions So Important?
1. Societal definitions of concepts like the family have consequences for rights and
privileges, including health insurance and Social Security benefits.
a) Unmarried partners cannot file a joint tax return.
b) The offspring of an employed person may receive health insurance benefits,
while the unmarried partner may be excluded.
c) Unmarried partners are not eligible for membership discounts.
II. THE FUNCTIONS OF FAMILIES
A. Despite some differences, family forms are remarkably similar across time and place.
1. All societies have marriage, a public, institutional arrangement between persons to
recognize social and intimate bonds.
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CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 3
2. Norms exist to regulate who can marry whom, how many spouses a person can
have, what the ceremony should be like, and how married persons should behave.
B. Anthropologist William Stephens defines marriage as a socially legitimate sexual union
that is publically announced; undertaken with some idea of permanence; and implies a
contract that spells out reciprocal obligations between spouses and between spouses and
children.
C. Marriages and families in all cultures include a variety of functions such as the following:
1. Regulation of Sexual Behavior. All societies stipulate who can have sex with
whom and when. The incest taboo, which forbids sex between close family
members, is a cultural universal.
2. Reproducing and Socializing Children. All societies need to produce new mem-
bers and ensure socialization. Socialization means that children are taught the
rules, expectations, and culture of the society in which they live. When repro-
duction is undertaken by the family, rather than by unrelated partners, the birth
parents are held responsible for socializing children.
3. Property and Inheritance. As societies evolved, they developed surplus food
and property, which meant that they needed to be able to identify heirs to
wealth. Monogamy meant that men could identify their offspring and their
heirs.
4. Economic Cooperation. Families cooperate to clothe, feed, shelter, and support
children and other members. Gender is often linked to a division of or.
5. Social Placement, Status, and Roles. Families provide members with an identity
and place in society (statuses and roles). This includes social class, racial and
ethnic identities, and religious affiliation.
6. Care, Warmth, Protection, and Intimacy. Humans need more than food and
shelter to survive. Families are expected to provide the emotional care necessary
to survive.
D. Because we have lived in a family, we may think of ourselves as family “experts.” How-
ever, our personal experiences are part of a larger picture that we may not see; we cannot
fully appreciate this without understanding the environment in which family processes
take place.
THEME 1: LINKING THE MICRO-LEVEL AND MACRO-LEVEL PERSPECTIVES ON
FAMILIES
A. Understanding families by linking the micro-level and the macro-level perspectives.
1. While we may think of family in terms of our own personal experiences, we must
locate family in the context of the social structure found in our society.
2. Social structure refers to the patterns of social organization that guide our interac-
2. Norms exist to regulate who can marry whom, how many spouses a person can
have, what the ceremony should be like, and how married persons should behave.
B. Anthropologist William Stephens defines marriage as a socially legitimate sexual union
that is publically announced; undertaken with some idea of permanence; and implies a
contract that spells out reciprocal obligations between spouses and between spouses and
children.
C. Marriages and families in all cultures include a variety of functions such as the following:
1. Regulation of Sexual Behavior. All societies stipulate who can have sex with
whom and when. The incest taboo, which forbids sex between close family
members, is a cultural universal.
2. Reproducing and Socializing Children. All societies need to produce new mem-
bers and ensure socialization. Socialization means that children are taught the
rules, expectations, and culture of the society in which they live. When repro-
duction is undertaken by the family, rather than by unrelated partners, the birth
parents are held responsible for socializing children.
3. Property and Inheritance. As societies evolved, they developed surplus food
and property, which meant that they needed to be able to identify heirs to
wealth. Monogamy meant that men could identify their offspring and their
heirs.
4. Economic Cooperation. Families cooperate to clothe, feed, shelter, and support
children and other members. Gender is often linked to a division of or.
5. Social Placement, Status, and Roles. Families provide members with an identity
and place in society (statuses and roles). This includes social class, racial and
ethnic identities, and religious affiliation.
6. Care, Warmth, Protection, and Intimacy. Humans need more than food and
shelter to survive. Families are expected to provide the emotional care necessary
to survive.
D. Because we have lived in a family, we may think of ourselves as family “experts.” How-
ever, our personal experiences are part of a larger picture that we may not see; we cannot
fully appreciate this without understanding the environment in which family processes
take place.
THEME 1: LINKING THE MICRO-LEVEL AND MACRO-LEVEL PERSPECTIVES ON
FAMILIES
A. Understanding families by linking the micro-level and the macro-level perspectives.
1. While we may think of family in terms of our own personal experiences, we must
locate family in the context of the social structure found in our society.
2. Social structure refers to the patterns of social organization that guide our interac-
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4 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
b) People who use this perspective focus on individuality and personal decision
making, and the interactions between groups in specific situations.
3. Despite having unique qualities, family relationships also share many important
qualities.
4. A theme of this text is that elements of social structures shape our daily experienc-
es, privileges, and constraints.
5. A macro-level perspective examines the ways in which marriage, families, and in-
timate relationships are interconnected with the rest of society and with other social
institutions.
a) Families are not isolated entities.
b) Social, cultural, political, and economic forces shape our decisions.
B. Family as a Social Institution
1. Families are social institutions upheld by beliefs and rules organized to meet basic
human needs.
2. In early human civilization, families were the center of most activities; they educat-
ed the young, cared for the sick, and practiced religion.
3. Despite a high divorce rate, people still want to marry, and still agree on some basic
behavioral expectations for husbands and wives. Fidelity is one example.
4. Family is linked to other social institutions; religious customs, the type of economy,
the structure of education, and political systems all shape family patterns, as do atti-
tudes, behaviors, and opportunities.
C. Social Status and Families
1. Status is another element of social structure; this refers to the social position that
one occupies.
2. Most people occupy many statuses; son, daughter, friend, roommate are examples.
3. Master statuses dominate others. Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class generally
operate as master statuses.
a) Racial discrimination may play a role in these differences.
D. An Example of the Interrelationship of Macro-level and Micro-level Perspectives:
Unemployment and Marriage Rates
1. Single-parent households are blamed for a variety of social ills, and are more likely
to be poor. The text raises the question of why poor and low-income women like
Terry Lynn have children without marrying their children’s father.
2. Some research shows that poor women value marriage highly, and believe that their
own relationships cannot meet their expectations.
3. William Julius Wilson’s research indicates that inner-city women view inner-city
b) People who use this perspective focus on individuality and personal decision
making, and the interactions between groups in specific situations.
3. Despite having unique qualities, family relationships also share many important
qualities.
4. A theme of this text is that elements of social structures shape our daily experienc-
es, privileges, and constraints.
5. A macro-level perspective examines the ways in which marriage, families, and in-
timate relationships are interconnected with the rest of society and with other social
institutions.
a) Families are not isolated entities.
b) Social, cultural, political, and economic forces shape our decisions.
B. Family as a Social Institution
1. Families are social institutions upheld by beliefs and rules organized to meet basic
human needs.
2. In early human civilization, families were the center of most activities; they educat-
ed the young, cared for the sick, and practiced religion.
3. Despite a high divorce rate, people still want to marry, and still agree on some basic
behavioral expectations for husbands and wives. Fidelity is one example.
4. Family is linked to other social institutions; religious customs, the type of economy,
the structure of education, and political systems all shape family patterns, as do atti-
tudes, behaviors, and opportunities.
C. Social Status and Families
1. Status is another element of social structure; this refers to the social position that
one occupies.
2. Most people occupy many statuses; son, daughter, friend, roommate are examples.
3. Master statuses dominate others. Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class generally
operate as master statuses.
a) Racial discrimination may play a role in these differences.
D. An Example of the Interrelationship of Macro-level and Micro-level Perspectives:
Unemployment and Marriage Rates
1. Single-parent households are blamed for a variety of social ills, and are more likely
to be poor. The text raises the question of why poor and low-income women like
Terry Lynn have children without marrying their children’s father.
2. Some research shows that poor women value marriage highly, and believe that their
own relationships cannot meet their expectations.
3. William Julius Wilson’s research indicates that inner-city women view inner-city
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CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 5
5. Substance abuse, homicide, violence, high incarceration rates, immigration policies,
technological advances, women’s opportunities, and new conceptions of fatherhood
also affect marriage rates.
E. Human agency refers to the ability of humans to create viable lives even when they are
constrained or limited by social forces.
1. Regardless of social class, age, or gender, we are actively directing our lives, even
though powerful social forces shape our opportunities.
2. This reinforces the idea that we must be aware of the ways that social structure in-
fluences our lives and choices.
IV THEME 2: FAMILIES ARE ALWAYS CHANGING
A. The second theme of this book is change; families are constantly undergoing change as
they adapt to meet their needs.
B. Marriage patterns include monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
1. Monogamy refers to marriage between one man and one woman. This pattern is
found widely, though not exclusively throughout the world.
2. Polygamy refers to a system that allows for more than one spouse at a time (gender
unspecified).
3. Polygyny is a form of polygamy that allows men to have more than one wife.
a) Although illegal in the United States, there are estimated to be about 50,000–
100,000 families that practice polygyny, primarily in the western states.
b) This pattern is also legal in some areas of Africa, the Middle East, and South
America. Having numerous wives is a status indicator for wealth and education.
It is also a way to increase fertility within a family.
4. Polyandry is a form of polygamy that allows women to have more than one hus-
band.
a) This rare pattern is most often found in areas where harsh environmental condi-
tions increase the likelihood that men will need to share the burden of support-
ing a wife and children.
b) Infant girls are more likely to be seen as burdensome, increasing the likelihood
of female infanticide. In turn, this increases the shortage of women.
C. Patterns of Authority: Patriarchy, Matriarchy, and Egalitarianism.
1. Patriarchy means rule of the father; this system grants men authority over women.
This right is reflected in the rest of the major social institutions, including religion,
government, and the economy. This pattern is widespread throughout the world.
2. Matriarchy is a pattern that grants women the right to have power over men; how-
ever, no true cases of matriarchy have ever been documented.
3. Egalitarianism
5. Substance abuse, homicide, violence, high incarceration rates, immigration policies,
technological advances, women’s opportunities, and new conceptions of fatherhood
also affect marriage rates.
E. Human agency refers to the ability of humans to create viable lives even when they are
constrained or limited by social forces.
1. Regardless of social class, age, or gender, we are actively directing our lives, even
though powerful social forces shape our opportunities.
2. This reinforces the idea that we must be aware of the ways that social structure in-
fluences our lives and choices.
IV THEME 2: FAMILIES ARE ALWAYS CHANGING
A. The second theme of this book is change; families are constantly undergoing change as
they adapt to meet their needs.
B. Marriage patterns include monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
1. Monogamy refers to marriage between one man and one woman. This pattern is
found widely, though not exclusively throughout the world.
2. Polygamy refers to a system that allows for more than one spouse at a time (gender
unspecified).
3. Polygyny is a form of polygamy that allows men to have more than one wife.
a) Although illegal in the United States, there are estimated to be about 50,000–
100,000 families that practice polygyny, primarily in the western states.
b) This pattern is also legal in some areas of Africa, the Middle East, and South
America. Having numerous wives is a status indicator for wealth and education.
It is also a way to increase fertility within a family.
4. Polyandry is a form of polygamy that allows women to have more than one hus-
band.
a) This rare pattern is most often found in areas where harsh environmental condi-
tions increase the likelihood that men will need to share the burden of support-
ing a wife and children.
b) Infant girls are more likely to be seen as burdensome, increasing the likelihood
of female infanticide. In turn, this increases the shortage of women.
C. Patterns of Authority: Patriarchy, Matriarchy, and Egalitarianism.
1. Patriarchy means rule of the father; this system grants men authority over women.
This right is reflected in the rest of the major social institutions, including religion,
government, and the economy. This pattern is widespread throughout the world.
2. Matriarchy is a pattern that grants women the right to have power over men; how-
ever, no true cases of matriarchy have ever been documented.
3. Egalitarianism
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6 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
1. Developed nations typically trace lineage and property rights through both the
mother and the father. This gives a person two sets of grandparents.
2. Patrilineal systems trace lineage and inheritance exclusively or primarily through
the father’s family line. Minimal connections exist between offspring and the moth-
er’s side of the family.
a) Some vestiges of this are still evident in the United States. For example, off-
spring are more likely to bear the father’s last name, and sons are often given
their father’s first name in subsequent generations. There is no equivalent pat-
tern for girls.
E. Residence Patterns: Neolocal, Patrilocal, and Matrilocal.
1. Neolocal residence patterns assume that couples will establish their own residence
after marriage.
2. Patrilocal residence patterns assume that couples will live with the husband’s fami-
ly.
3. Matrilocal residence patterns assume that couples will live with the wife’s family.
F. Families in Transition: China
1. Many changes have taken place over the past few decades. These include an emerg-
ing market-based economy, a more highly educated workforce, and a large numbers
of cars and the infrastructure necessary for cars.
2. Many traditional beliefs have changed, including those relating to women’s roles,
marriage, and children.
3. Couples in China are still required to apply for permission to marry. The govern-
ment decides when a couple can marry in order to regulate births.
a) This pattern is part of the one-child policy. Most couples are allowed to have
only one child, and face heavy fines or pressure to have an abortion if they get
pregnant without government permission.
b) Until the policy was liberalized in late 2013, the one-child policy worked to im-
prove the standard of living for many Chinese people.
4. The Chinese government recently banned elective amniocentesis tests. Ultrasound
scanners are restricted; this means that parents cannot determine the sex of the
child. They have also implemented an educational program designed to change pa-
rental attitudes toward girls.
5. Changes in the numbers of abandoned girls available for adoption have been noted:
in 2015, there were 2,354 Chinese girls adopted in the United States, down from
7,900 in 2005.
G. History of Family Life in the United States
1. The U.S. history provides evidence of ongoing changes in families.
2. Family Life in Colonial America: European Colonists. Family historians have
shown that families were the cornerstone of colonial society and acted as:
1. Developed nations typically trace lineage and property rights through both the
mother and the father. This gives a person two sets of grandparents.
2. Patrilineal systems trace lineage and inheritance exclusively or primarily through
the father’s family line. Minimal connections exist between offspring and the moth-
er’s side of the family.
a) Some vestiges of this are still evident in the United States. For example, off-
spring are more likely to bear the father’s last name, and sons are often given
their father’s first name in subsequent generations. There is no equivalent pat-
tern for girls.
E. Residence Patterns: Neolocal, Patrilocal, and Matrilocal.
1. Neolocal residence patterns assume that couples will establish their own residence
after marriage.
2. Patrilocal residence patterns assume that couples will live with the husband’s fami-
ly.
3. Matrilocal residence patterns assume that couples will live with the wife’s family.
F. Families in Transition: China
1. Many changes have taken place over the past few decades. These include an emerg-
ing market-based economy, a more highly educated workforce, and a large numbers
of cars and the infrastructure necessary for cars.
2. Many traditional beliefs have changed, including those relating to women’s roles,
marriage, and children.
3. Couples in China are still required to apply for permission to marry. The govern-
ment decides when a couple can marry in order to regulate births.
a) This pattern is part of the one-child policy. Most couples are allowed to have
only one child, and face heavy fines or pressure to have an abortion if they get
pregnant without government permission.
b) Until the policy was liberalized in late 2013, the one-child policy worked to im-
prove the standard of living for many Chinese people.
4. The Chinese government recently banned elective amniocentesis tests. Ultrasound
scanners are restricted; this means that parents cannot determine the sex of the
child. They have also implemented an educational program designed to change pa-
rental attitudes toward girls.
5. Changes in the numbers of abandoned girls available for adoption have been noted:
in 2015, there were 2,354 Chinese girls adopted in the United States, down from
7,900 in 2005.
G. History of Family Life in the United States
1. The U.S. history provides evidence of ongoing changes in families.
2. Family Life in Colonial America: European Colonists. Family historians have
shown that families were the cornerstone of colonial society and acted as:
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CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 7
a) Businesses. Families were the center of economic production; households were
nearly self-sufficient at producing food, clothing, furniture, and household
goods.
b) Schools. Formal schooling was rare; parents educated their children in voca-
tional and technical skills.
c) Churches. Churches tended to be far away; families worshipped and prayed to-
gether.
d) Correctional institutions. Jails were rare; courts sentenced criminals to work for
and with respected families.
e) Health and social welfare institutions. There were no hospitals and few doctors,
so families and women in particular took care of the sick, the aged, the home-
less, and the orphaned.
3. Most colonial families lived in nuclear families rather than extended families.
a) Nuclear families consist of adults and their children.
b) Extended families comprise parents, children, and other relatives, such as
grandparents.
c) Families were large (e.g., six or more children) and siblings could be as much as
25 years apart in age.
d) High mortality rates meant that husbands or wives might have married two or
three times.
e) Marriage and family were central events in people’s lives; couples were seen as
a team. However, women were not seen as equals, but as helpmates and were
expected to obey their husbands.
f) Parents believed that children were born with “original sin” and therefore, were
very strict. No concept of adolescence existed; as soon as children were old
enough, they were expected to labor on the farm or in the household.
4. Colonial America: African Americans and Slavery. The first Africans forcefully
brought to the colonies were indentured servants, and were freed and able to buy
land once they served a specified amount of time.
a) By the 1800s, the United States prohibited importing new slaves. This resulted
in some owners encouraging family relationships and childbearing among the
slaves they owned.
b) Slave marriages were fragile; more than one-third were terminated due to the
husband or wife being sold to another household.
c) Prior to the Civil War, there were over a million slaves in the United States with
150,000 free African Americans living in the South, and another 100,000 living
in the northern part of the United States.
d) Being “free” did not necessarily mean that African Americans were allowed to
vote, attend White schools, or be hired for jobs. This led to high poverty rates
and many female-headed households.
5. Industrialization, Urbanization, and Immigration. These three factors brought
many changes to families during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
a) Businesses. Families were the center of economic production; households were
nearly self-sufficient at producing food, clothing, furniture, and household
goods.
b) Schools. Formal schooling was rare; parents educated their children in voca-
tional and technical skills.
c) Churches. Churches tended to be far away; families worshipped and prayed to-
gether.
d) Correctional institutions. Jails were rare; courts sentenced criminals to work for
and with respected families.
e) Health and social welfare institutions. There were no hospitals and few doctors,
so families and women in particular took care of the sick, the aged, the home-
less, and the orphaned.
3. Most colonial families lived in nuclear families rather than extended families.
a) Nuclear families consist of adults and their children.
b) Extended families comprise parents, children, and other relatives, such as
grandparents.
c) Families were large (e.g., six or more children) and siblings could be as much as
25 years apart in age.
d) High mortality rates meant that husbands or wives might have married two or
three times.
e) Marriage and family were central events in people’s lives; couples were seen as
a team. However, women were not seen as equals, but as helpmates and were
expected to obey their husbands.
f) Parents believed that children were born with “original sin” and therefore, were
very strict. No concept of adolescence existed; as soon as children were old
enough, they were expected to labor on the farm or in the household.
4. Colonial America: African Americans and Slavery. The first Africans forcefully
brought to the colonies were indentured servants, and were freed and able to buy
land once they served a specified amount of time.
a) By the 1800s, the United States prohibited importing new slaves. This resulted
in some owners encouraging family relationships and childbearing among the
slaves they owned.
b) Slave marriages were fragile; more than one-third were terminated due to the
husband or wife being sold to another household.
c) Prior to the Civil War, there were over a million slaves in the United States with
150,000 free African Americans living in the South, and another 100,000 living
in the northern part of the United States.
d) Being “free” did not necessarily mean that African Americans were allowed to
vote, attend White schools, or be hired for jobs. This led to high poverty rates
and many female-headed households.
5. Industrialization, Urbanization, and Immigration. These three factors brought
many changes to families during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Loading page 10...
8 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
b) In search of jobs, many people moved from rural areas to the city; this is known
as urbanization.
c) Immigrants from Europe and Asia moved to the United States in search of a bet-
ter life, and provided cheap labor that fueled further industrialization.
6. The Poor and Working Classes. Most immigrants were poor and lived in sub-
standard housing without adequate sanitation.
a) Working conditions were extremely dangerous; many people worked 60–80
hour workweeks.
b) Stressors like these were associated with alcoholism, violence, crime, and other
social problems.
7. Middle and Upper Classes. The ideal for these families was a breadwinner father
and stay-at-home mother. Children were seen as “innocents,” who could be shaped
by proper parenting (the mother’s role).
8. The Rise of the “Modern” Family—the 20th Century. The early- to mid-1900s
saw two World Wars, a depression, and the relative affluence of the 1950s and
1960s.
b) In search of jobs, many people moved from rural areas to the city; this is known
as urbanization.
c) Immigrants from Europe and Asia moved to the United States in search of a bet-
ter life, and provided cheap labor that fueled further industrialization.
6. The Poor and Working Classes. Most immigrants were poor and lived in sub-
standard housing without adequate sanitation.
a) Working conditions were extremely dangerous; many people worked 60–80
hour workweeks.
b) Stressors like these were associated with alcoholism, violence, crime, and other
social problems.
7. Middle and Upper Classes. The ideal for these families was a breadwinner father
and stay-at-home mother. Children were seen as “innocents,” who could be shaped
by proper parenting (the mother’s role).
8. The Rise of the “Modern” Family—the 20th Century. The early- to mid-1900s
saw two World Wars, a depression, and the relative affluence of the 1950s and
1960s.
Loading page 11...
CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 9
V. THEME 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCH
A. The third theme in this book is an appreciation for the role that social science theory and
research play in helping people understand families and close relationships.
1. Everyone has opinions based on information filtered through the lens of the mass
media, friends, parents, religious teachings, and laws.
2. Because we have been raised in a family ourselves, we may assume that our per-
sonal experiences or our “common sense” gives us expertise.
3. This text assumes that the scientific method can provide information that is more
objective; commonsense notions of how women should be treated have changed
substantially in our country. Other countries still allow husbands to beat wives.
4. If common sense varies so much over time and from place to place, we need to use
an empirical approach, which answers questions through a systematic collection
and analysis of data.
5. The empirical approach can help us to understand patterns of family dynamics, and
ultimately, to build stronger families. The goals of family research can
a) Describe some phenomenon (patterns of domestic violence).
b) Examine factors that predict or are associated with a phenomenon (who reports
violence and who does not).
c) Explain cause
V. THEME 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCH
A. The third theme in this book is an appreciation for the role that social science theory and
research play in helping people understand families and close relationships.
1. Everyone has opinions based on information filtered through the lens of the mass
media, friends, parents, religious teachings, and laws.
2. Because we have been raised in a family ourselves, we may assume that our per-
sonal experiences or our “common sense” gives us expertise.
3. This text assumes that the scientific method can provide information that is more
objective; commonsense notions of how women should be treated have changed
substantially in our country. Other countries still allow husbands to beat wives.
4. If common sense varies so much over time and from place to place, we need to use
an empirical approach, which answers questions through a systematic collection
and analysis of data.
5. The empirical approach can help us to understand patterns of family dynamics, and
ultimately, to build stronger families. The goals of family research can
a) Describe some phenomenon (patterns of domestic violence).
b) Examine factors that predict or are associated with a phenomenon (who reports
violence and who does not).
c) Explain cause
Loading page 12...
10 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
6. Observational studies go to the natural setting to observe people in action. Some
observational studies use direct observation, while others require the researcher to
go undercover and become a participant observer.
7. Secondary analysis research makes use of previously gathered information. The
U.S. Census Bureau and the Department of Justice often provide such sources of in-
formation. While not as expensive as other methods, compromise is often involved
for the researcher, because the data may not have been collected in the way that the
researcher would have collected it.
8. Some research is quantitative, and makes use of information that can be measured
numerically; other research is qualitative and uses narrative description with words
rather than numbers to analyze patterns.
a) No one method is superior to the others—it depends on the question being
posed.
C. Theories: Helping Us Make Sense of the World
1. Research is guided by theory, a general framework, explanation, or tool used to
understand and describe the real world.
a) Theory is important before and after the data has been collected.
b) Prior to research, theories help to frame questions; after the data has been col-
lected, they help us to interpret findings.
6. Observational studies go to the natural setting to observe people in action. Some
observational studies use direct observation, while others require the researcher to
go undercover and become a participant observer.
7. Secondary analysis research makes use of previously gathered information. The
U.S. Census Bureau and the Department of Justice often provide such sources of in-
formation. While not as expensive as other methods, compromise is often involved
for the researcher, because the data may not have been collected in the way that the
researcher would have collected it.
8. Some research is quantitative, and makes use of information that can be measured
numerically; other research is qualitative and uses narrative description with words
rather than numbers to analyze patterns.
a) No one method is superior to the others—it depends on the question being
posed.
C. Theories: Helping Us Make Sense of the World
1. Research is guided by theory, a general framework, explanation, or tool used to
understand and describe the real world.
a) Theory is important before and after the data has been collected.
b) Prior to research, theories help to frame questions; after the data has been col-
lected, they help us to interpret findings.
Loading page 13...
CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 11
that evaluates social, economic, and emotional costs and benefits relative to known
alternatives.
8. Symbolic interaction theory emphasizes the symbols we use in everyday interac-
tion—words, gestures, appearances, and how these are interpreted. Our interactions
with others are based on the way we interpret symbols such as a ring, a kiss, or a
smile.
9. Developmental theory suggests that families and individual family members go
through distinct stages over time. Each stage has its own set of tasks, roles, and re-
sponsibilities. The stages include getting married, having children, preschool years,
school-age years, teen years, launching children into adulthood, being a middle-
aged parent, and aging.
a) Now theorists recognize that not all families experience these events (e.g., some
couples do not have children, or do not marry).
b) Developmental theorists use both micro and macro approaches to describe and
explain family relationships.
10. Systems theory proposes that a family system—the family members and the roles
they play—is larger than the sum of its individual members.
a) The family contains subsystems, such as the married couple subsystem, the sib-
ling subsystem, or the parent–child subsystem.
b)
that evaluates social, economic, and emotional costs and benefits relative to known
alternatives.
8. Symbolic interaction theory emphasizes the symbols we use in everyday interac-
tion—words, gestures, appearances, and how these are interpreted. Our interactions
with others are based on the way we interpret symbols such as a ring, a kiss, or a
smile.
9. Developmental theory suggests that families and individual family members go
through distinct stages over time. Each stage has its own set of tasks, roles, and re-
sponsibilities. The stages include getting married, having children, preschool years,
school-age years, teen years, launching children into adulthood, being a middle-
aged parent, and aging.
a) Now theorists recognize that not all families experience these events (e.g., some
couples do not have children, or do not marry).
b) Developmental theorists use both micro and macro approaches to describe and
explain family relationships.
10. Systems theory proposes that a family system—the family members and the roles
they play—is larger than the sum of its individual members.
a) The family contains subsystems, such as the married couple subsystem, the sib-
ling subsystem, or the parent–child subsystem.
b)
Loading page 14...
12 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
4. While data show that an increasing number of people do not have children, many of
these (about half of childfree women ages 40–44) are involuntarily childless.
VI. BRINGING IT FULL CIRCLE
A. Our views about family relationships reflect both micro-level and macro-level factors.
1. Micro-level factors include personal choice and interpersonal dynamics.
2. Macro-level factors include broader social structures, such as social institutions, and
the statuses of race, sex, and ethnic identity.
B. Rather than relying on common sense or personal opinion, family researchers are inter-
ested in systematically uncovering patterns and answering questions using social science
research methods.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING
1. The opening vignette raises the question of how students see their families. Use a
thinking map to allow students to draw their family tree (a tree map works best for
this). Thinking maps are especially helpful to students who are visual learners. Al-
ternatively, students can locate genogram software online. Have students bring their
completed family trees (or, allow them to do this in class), and then tally the num-
4. While data show that an increasing number of people do not have children, many of
these (about half of childfree women ages 40–44) are involuntarily childless.
VI. BRINGING IT FULL CIRCLE
A. Our views about family relationships reflect both micro-level and macro-level factors.
1. Micro-level factors include personal choice and interpersonal dynamics.
2. Macro-level factors include broader social structures, such as social institutions, and
the statuses of race, sex, and ethnic identity.
B. Rather than relying on common sense or personal opinion, family researchers are inter-
ested in systematically uncovering patterns and answering questions using social science
research methods.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING
1. The opening vignette raises the question of how students see their families. Use a
thinking map to allow students to draw their family tree (a tree map works best for
this). Thinking maps are especially helpful to students who are visual learners. Al-
ternatively, students can locate genogram software online. Have students bring their
completed family trees (or, allow them to do this in class), and then tally the num-
Loading page 15...
CHAPTER 1 Why Study Families and other close Relationships? 13
5. To encourage students to use critical thinking skills as they analyze family forms
and patterns, have them access the website for the Critical Thinking Community.
Have students write a short essay on the elements of critical thinking.
6. To encourage students to apply family theories to analyze family behaviors, have
them apply one or more of the theories discussed in Chapter 1. For example, stu-
dents could use Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions to analyze how a
legal change in the definition of the family might impact society. Be sure to have
them make a list of manifest dysfunctions so that they can think about the role that
political pressures might play in resisting changes to the official definition.
7. Have the class conduct a short survey outside of class and present the findings to
the rest of the class. It may be helpful to break the class into groups of three or four
students and give them one or two questions to research. Each student should inter-
view between five and ten respondents. For example, students could ask respond-
ents how they feel about men who choose to take their wives’ names, or if they
favor changing the legal rights of unmarried partners. They should be sure to get the
gender and the marital status of the respondents. Have them present their findings in
either bar charts or pie charts (to keep it simple) to the rest of the class. Make sure
they understand that gender and marital status are independent variables, and the re-
spondent’s attitude would be the dependent variable. Students should also discuss
the limitations of their “study,” as they will most likely have to use snowball or
convenience sampling.
VIDEO SUGGESTIONS
Beyond the Nuclear Family describes case studies and interviews with family members. The pro-
gram examines changing roles, structures, and functions of the family unit. It covers such topics
as societal expectations, technological advancements, and changes in cultural and sexual diversity
and highlights emotional, environmental, economic, and health-related considerations for evolv-
ing family characteristics. 2008. 25 minutes. Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY
10024-0621. 800-233-9910.
5. To encourage students to use critical thinking skills as they analyze family forms
and patterns, have them access the website for the Critical Thinking Community.
Have students write a short essay on the elements of critical thinking.
6. To encourage students to apply family theories to analyze family behaviors, have
them apply one or more of the theories discussed in Chapter 1. For example, stu-
dents could use Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions to analyze how a
legal change in the definition of the family might impact society. Be sure to have
them make a list of manifest dysfunctions so that they can think about the role that
political pressures might play in resisting changes to the official definition.
7. Have the class conduct a short survey outside of class and present the findings to
the rest of the class. It may be helpful to break the class into groups of three or four
students and give them one or two questions to research. Each student should inter-
view between five and ten respondents. For example, students could ask respond-
ents how they feel about men who choose to take their wives’ names, or if they
favor changing the legal rights of unmarried partners. They should be sure to get the
gender and the marital status of the respondents. Have them present their findings in
either bar charts or pie charts (to keep it simple) to the rest of the class. Make sure
they understand that gender and marital status are independent variables, and the re-
spondent’s attitude would be the dependent variable. Students should also discuss
the limitations of their “study,” as they will most likely have to use snowball or
convenience sampling.
VIDEO SUGGESTIONS
Beyond the Nuclear Family describes case studies and interviews with family members. The pro-
gram examines changing roles, structures, and functions of the family unit. It covers such topics
as societal expectations, technological advancements, and changes in cultural and sexual diversity
and highlights emotional, environmental, economic, and health-related considerations for evolv-
ing family characteristics. 2008. 25 minutes. Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY
10024-0621. 800-233-9910.
Loading page 16...
14 Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For Exploring Marriages & Families
Powell, Brian, Catherine Bolzendahl, Claudia Geist, and Lala Carr Steelman. 2010. Counted Out:
Same Sex Relations and Americans’ Definition of Family. New York, NY: Russell Sage Founda-
tion.
White, James. 2007. Family Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. As noted in Chapter 1, the one-child policy in China reduced the population, but
came with serious costs. Were the costs worth it? What other strategies can popu-
lous countries like China employ to reduce the population to prevent starvation?
How would conflict theorists and structural functionalists view this policy?
2. According to Chapter 1, divorce seems to be declining. What are some macro-level
reasons for this decline?
3. Why is there so much variation among the states with respect to the divorce rate?
For example, in 2007, the divorce rate in Florida was 86.4, while in Oregon, it was
only 14.8. What are some possible reasons for such variation?
4. How do recessions (macro-level) affect one’s personal decision to marry or divorce
(micro-level)?
5. Suppose that you were in charge of family policies in the United States. What poli-
cies would you implement to increase the marriage rate among the poor? What pos-
sible unintended consequences might emerge from your policies?
6. Which of the family functions listed in Chapter 1 do you think is the most important
in contemporary society and why? As the text notes, in colonial times, the family
functioned as a commonwealth. However, today, many of those functions have dis-
appeared as society industrialized, and labor markets became more specialized.
What social forces will change family functions in the future?
Powell, Brian, Catherine Bolzendahl, Claudia Geist, and Lala Carr Steelman. 2010. Counted Out:
Same Sex Relations and Americans’ Definition of Family. New York, NY: Russell Sage Founda-
tion.
White, James. 2007. Family Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. As noted in Chapter 1, the one-child policy in China reduced the population, but
came with serious costs. Were the costs worth it? What other strategies can popu-
lous countries like China employ to reduce the population to prevent starvation?
How would conflict theorists and structural functionalists view this policy?
2. According to Chapter 1, divorce seems to be declining. What are some macro-level
reasons for this decline?
3. Why is there so much variation among the states with respect to the divorce rate?
For example, in 2007, the divorce rate in Florida was 86.4, while in Oregon, it was
only 14.8. What are some possible reasons for such variation?
4. How do recessions (macro-level) affect one’s personal decision to marry or divorce
(micro-level)?
5. Suppose that you were in charge of family policies in the United States. What poli-
cies would you implement to increase the marriage rate among the poor? What pos-
sible unintended consequences might emerge from your policies?
6. Which of the family functions listed in Chapter 1 do you think is the most important
in contemporary society and why? As the text notes, in colonial times, the family
functioned as a commonwealth. However, today, many of those functions have dis-
appeared as society industrialized, and labor markets became more specialized.
What social forces will change family functions in the future?
Loading page 17...
15
CHAPTER 2
Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race,
Ethnicity, and Social Class
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class are social statuses that have a strong influence on our lives.
Depending on these status characteristics, we have different opportunities, experiences, and treat-
ment. Patriarchy intersects with sex as a biological construct and gender as a sociological con-
struct. They are found in a wide variety of social institutions, including legal, educational,
religious, and economic ones. One powerful example of patriarchy is genital cutting, a practice that
is widespread and appears to be growing. Patriarchal norms still exist in the United States, and are
reflected in high rates of plastic surgery, name changes, pay differentials, and occupations. Gender
socialization exists in all societies; agents responsible for this process include parents, schools,
toys, peers, and the mass media. In turn, gender influences our family and our close relationships,
as well as the division of household labor. Race and ethnicity influence our close relationships,
including fertility rates. The United States is racially diverse—yet, this diversity has not eliminated
the problems of prejudice and discrimination. Some discrimination is individual; some is institu-
tionalized, and may go unrecognized. Recent research documents that both of these are still prob-
lematic in the U.S. Educational attainment and family structure vary by race; for example, Asian
Americans are more likely than other groups to go to college and earn an advanced degree. The
impact of social class in the United States is often denied or downplayed. Researchers have identi-
fied six social classes: the upper class, the upper middle class, the middle class, the working
class,
CHAPTER 2
Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race,
Ethnicity, and Social Class
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class are social statuses that have a strong influence on our lives.
Depending on these status characteristics, we have different opportunities, experiences, and treat-
ment. Patriarchy intersects with sex as a biological construct and gender as a sociological con-
struct. They are found in a wide variety of social institutions, including legal, educational,
religious, and economic ones. One powerful example of patriarchy is genital cutting, a practice that
is widespread and appears to be growing. Patriarchal norms still exist in the United States, and are
reflected in high rates of plastic surgery, name changes, pay differentials, and occupations. Gender
socialization exists in all societies; agents responsible for this process include parents, schools,
toys, peers, and the mass media. In turn, gender influences our family and our close relationships,
as well as the division of household labor. Race and ethnicity influence our close relationships,
including fertility rates. The United States is racially diverse—yet, this diversity has not eliminated
the problems of prejudice and discrimination. Some discrimination is individual; some is institu-
tionalized, and may go unrecognized. Recent research documents that both of these are still prob-
lematic in the U.S. Educational attainment and family structure vary by race; for example, Asian
Americans are more likely than other groups to go to college and earn an advanced degree. The
impact of social class in the United States is often denied or downplayed. Researchers have identi-
fied six social classes: the upper class, the upper middle class, the middle class, the working
class,
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