PSY101 Portage Learning Module 1-8 Exam Review Study Guide (8 Detailed Reviews)

Name: PSY101 Portage Learning Module 1-8 Exam Review Study Guide (8 Detailed Reviews)
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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY
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Module 1 exam review
What Is Lifespan Development?
A note before we begin:
This course has external links to informational websites and videos. The
information on these pages is part of the course and will be incorporated into
the exams. Make sure to follow each link and read the material or watch the
video as specified in the course material.
Lifespan Development
Throughout the human life span, numerous changes occur. These changes
have physical, social, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. Lifespan
development studies these changes from conception to death by investigating
major periods of development.
These major periods include:
• prenatal development
• infancy and toddlerhood
• early childhood
• middle childhood
• adolescence
• early adulthood
• middle adulthood
• late adulthood

Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY
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1. Lifelong
In studying these major periods, experts in lifespan development note some
distinctive features of human development. First, development is lifelong.
Early research and theory in human development primarily focused on
children. However, developmental science increasingly emphasizes the major
changes that occur throughout adolescence and adulthood, showing that it is
important to consider development (or change) at each period.
2. Multidirectional
Secondly, development is multidirectional. In the paragraph above,
development is loosely defined as change. However, change can be good or
bad. It can even be both, simultaneously. Thus, at every period, an individual
might be improving in some ways and falling behind in others. We even have
terms for these different aspects of change.
For example, aging, or the process of becoming old, is something that
everyone faces if they live long enough. There is a surprising amount of
mystery in science regarding what precisely triggers aging. We would typically
use this term for adults. While children technically are getting older as well, we
wouldn’t use the term “aging” to refer to a child.
Aging is somewhat different from growth, which implies physical change (such
as growing taller).
Maturation, on the other hand, can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive.
Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and more
advanced. For example, our brains don’t grow in size across the lifespan, but
they do mature (due to physical changes occurring within the brain) across
childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, we
may speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement in
emotional regulation is a good example of emotional maturation.
Multidirectional development can be seen in adults who are aging and facing
some physical declines but are becoming more emotionally mature at the
same time.

Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY
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3. Multidisciplinary
Thirdly, the study of development is multidisciplinary. You might be taking
this course because of your training in the health sciences, social sciences, or
education. Each of these professional fields has a major stake in
understanding human development. In addition, each of these fields is
influenced by major contributions from professionals in the remaining fields.
4. Multidimensional
Finally, development is multidimensional. As stated earlier, we experience
changes in the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, and
cognitive. In addition, moral development is an important area of
consideration.
In summary, development is multidimensional, multidisciplinary,
multidirectional, and lifelong.
Theoretical Perspectives in
Lifespan Development
A. Controversies in Lifespan Development
While few students are thrilled at the prospect of studying psychological
theory, it is extremely important to understand what directs knowledge in the
field. In addition, theoretical perspectives are always significant portions of
outcome tests (for example, CLEP, N-CLEX) in development!
Watch the video below as you study the material in this module.
We will begin with a few controversies in the field. While these controversies
are by no means solved, most experts acknowledge the importance of
considering both sides. Why is it relevant to discuss these controversies? One
reason is because various professionals may lean toward one or the other
perspective, and it is important to be aware of these theoretical leanings. In

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addition, and this is particularly the case with the first controversy, researchers
spend a significant amount of time teasing out the relative contributions of the
various sides as they seek to understand specific topics in human
development.

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1. Nature vs. Nurture
The nature/nurture issue in human development is one of the most important
considerations in the field. At issue is what causes people to be the way they
are. Are they born that way? People leaning toward that perspective rely on
“nature,” or biology, to explain human behavior. Or, do people change due to
their environments, such as parental influence, socioeconomic status, or level
of education? These explanations fall under “nurture.”
As you can see, both sides are necessary for understanding development.
Yet, some professionals, due to their interest and expertise, may lean toward
one or the other perspective.
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
This controversy has to do with the process of change. Is development
continuous? If so, then the various stages of development gradually flow into
one another. Sometimes it might be hard to even discern where one stage
stops and another starts. But if development is discontinuous, then stages are
distinct. One definitely ends before the other begins.
Historically, as we’ll learn shortly, a discontinuous perspective prevailed. More
recently, development is viewed more as a continuum. However, depending
on the type of development being discussed, it is helpful to know that both
types of change might be possible.
B. Major Theorists and Theories
Have you heard of the following theorists: Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Erik
Erikson? While they are only a few of the classic theorists in lifespan
development, they were some of the most influential. Each originated stage
theories of human development. We begin with a brief discussion of Freud’s
psychodynamic theories.

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1. Sigmund Freud and the Psychosexual Stages of
Development
Freud described five stages of development, each of which involves a conflict
and a fixation with an area of the body that is associated with sexual
gratification. Terms from this theory are really part of Western culture now. For
example, being “anal” and speaking of “phallic symbols” both harken back to
Freud. The following quote from R.R. Rice describes and interacts with
Freud's stages:
Freud posited that our personalities develop based on the interaction and
conflict between the id, ego, and superego. The id is the most basic and first
part of personality to emerge. It consists of our unconscious impulses that

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fulfillment is balanced by the ego, which operates according to the reality
principle. This function of personality is not inborn but develops as children
learn that not all desires can be fulfilled, or even if they can, might be fulfilled
after a delay. The ego operates in the conscious, then, and addresses how the
real world impacts the desires of the id. The superego is the final function of
personality, developing by the time a child is school-aged. The superego is the
child’s internalization of social norms and standards. As the ego is caught
between the id’s impulses and the superego’s moral standards, it must
attempt to balance the conflict between the other two functions, as well as the
conflict between the internal life and the realities of the external world. In a
well-functioning adult, this balance works. However, that balance between
competing impulses is not always easy to achieve.
Personality development progresses through stages that are named after the
bodily area from which a person of a particular age centers her pleasure and
enjoyment. Either deriving too much pleasure or getting too little pleasure in a
particular stage can cause a person to become stuck (or fixated, to use
Freud’s language) as we seek to recreate the pleasure, or to address the fact
that we were deprived during that stage’s pleasures. We will address what
Freud suggested are the primary developmental tasks of these stages, as well
as where he thought problems could develop.
Oral Stage (Birth - 18 months): In the oral stage, children derive their primary
pleasure through their mouths. Their major developmental task from birth to
approximately 18 months is to grow and begin to understand the world. They
do that by investigating whether or not new things are food—everything goes
into a baby’s mouth, and they are easily soothed by sucking, so pacifiers
provide a pleasurable experience for young children. Of course, the central
activity that provides pleasure to children in this stage is nursing. Children in
this stage are primarily functioning in response to their id impulses. If they
derive too much pleasure in this stage (for example, they are allowed to
breastfeed for a long time and are weaned late) or too little pleasure (they are
weaned early), they will become fixated and not progress fully to healthy adult
development. Instead, their personality will be one of dependency on others
and general neediness as they seek to recreate the initial comfort they found
when all of their needs were taken care of by their mother. Behavioral
indicators that an adult has a fixated oral personality might also be smoking or
chewing gum or constantly biting one’s fingernails. These are reversions to

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developmental task shifts to toilet training. Children derive pleasure from
learning to control their bodies, and by extension, to control the environment
around them. They can choose to eliminate their bowels or not, and so gain
control of themselves and their environment. Many parents will remember
times when their potty-training child made pronouncements about needing the
bathroom on a car trip and the frantic search for a place to stop that then
ensues: The child is definitely in control of the environment in that case.
Difficulties with toilet training, whether training too late or traumatically too
early can lead to anal fixations, which are also about control. For example, an
anal retentive personality might have a high need for orderliness and
cleanliness in his environment, whereas an anal expulsive personality might
exert control over her surroundings by leaving her belongings scattered and
messy. In both cases these are issues of control of the environment.
Phallic Stage (3 years - 5 years): During this stage of development, the zone
from which pleasure is derived is the genitalia, specifically the penis. Boys and
girls are both beginning to explore their bodies and are learning about
differences in anatomy. The focus of this stage, then, is on boys’ anatomy.
According to Freud, once girls realize that boys have a penis and they don’t,
girls experience penis envy because they are missing this significant feature.
Once boys realize they have a penis and girls don’t, they come to believe that
girls must have lost their penis, and so become overly focused on keeping
theirs. In order to work through this, boys go through what Freud
called Oedipal conflict, a series of steps where boys turn their affections
toward their mothers and desire them sexually. Boys are fearful that their
fathers will be angered by their competition for her affection, and so boys
undergo castration anxiety where they fear that they will be emasculated by
their fathers. In order to deal with this anxiety, boys recognize that they cannot
compete against their fathers, and thus begin to identify with their fathers in
order to adopt an appropriate male role. It is the internalization of the external
standards of masculinity that helps boys to develop a superego.
Girls do not navigate this pathway during the phallic stage, instead focusing
on their lack of a penis and blaming their mothers who are also missing a
penis for their lack, beginning the process of the Electra conflict. According to
psychodynamic theory, girls move from an attachment to their mother to
experiencing deep affection for and attachment to their fathers, leading to
some of the same competition and fear that boys in this stage experience.

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Girls ultimately resolve this conflict by looking to their mothers as a model for
how to be a woman, ultimately incorporating those external standards into
their sense of what it means to be a girl. As an aside, since girls do not go
through the Oedipal conflict, in Freud’s estimation girls had a less firmly

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developed superego and consequently a weaker moral compass. For both
boys and girls, successful navigation of the phallic stage will lead to the
development of the superego that helps them repress their sexual desires.
Fixation in the phallic stage is likely to result in different outcomes for boys
and girls. For boys, it will stem from unsuccessful resolution of the Oedipal
conflict so that they are overly focused on masculinity. For girls who
unsuccessfully resolve their penis envy, their continued desire for a penis will
cause them to be emasculating; they will attempt to cut men down emotionally
and socially.
Latency Stage (5 years - puberty): According to Freud, once the phallic stage
is navigated, children enter a period of latency, where no new psychological
challenges or conflicts emerge. Rather, children focus on developing same-
sex friendships throughout elementary school and developing interests
throughout those school years.
Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood): Assuming that a person has successfully
navigated the first three stages, once puberty is reached the person enters the
genital stage. Although the area of focus for pleasure is the genitals, it is quite
different from the phallic stage. The difference here is that mutual genital
pleasure is the focus, rather than just male sexual anatomy. The genital stage,
then, is about healthy relationships with others and with productive work. The
genital stage of personality focuses on our healthy adult growth.
Although there are definitely issues of sexuality raised by Freud’s theory
below, you can see that an individual’s transition through these phases is also
about more than just sexuality. Freud’s psychodynamic approach
demonstrates a broader theory about growth, starting with complete
dependency in infancy and moving into mature functioning and productivity as
we age (Rice, 2020).
Many theorists and researchers have critiqued these stages. For instance,
many have noted that Freud lumps adolescents and adults together in the
final stage and is uninterested in exploring additional development. However,
a lifespan perspective to development notes the very important changes that
occur after adolescence. Freud was a product of his time, which was a period
in which people assumed that few developmental changes occurred after
adolescence. This has now been shown to be incorrect; a number of important

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changes occur in adulthood, and some of these changes will be covered in
this course. Other researchers take issue with Freud’s research methods,
stating that Freud’s particular clinical sample and biased analysis call the
stages into question. Since he only studied individuals seeking

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psychoanalysis for a variety of mental conditions, many question whether his
stages are applicable to normal, healthy development, or whether they
primarily reflect what might occur in a patient sample.
However, they are still relevant to discuss for their historical importance and
their current influence today.
2. Erik Erikson and the Psychosocial Stages of
Development
Erik Erikson described eight stages of human development, ranging from
infancy to late adulthood. Erikson integrated social experiences extensively

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