Solution Manual for Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, 13th Edition

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Research Methods,
Design, and Analysis
Thirteenth Edition
Larry B. Christensen
R. Burke Johnson
Lisa A. Turner
Resource Manual
and Test Bank
Laura Powell

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Method 1
Chapter 2: Research Approaches and Methods of Data Collection 26
Chapter 3: Identifying Research Questions and Forming Hypotheses 63
Chapter 4: Ethics 84
Chapter 5: Measuring Variables and Sampling 116
Chapter 6: Research Validity 149
Chapter 7: Control Techniques in Research 180
Chapter 8: Procedure for Conducting a Research Study 206
Chapter 9: Experimental Research Design 228
Chapter 10: Quasi-Experimental Designs 276
Chapter 11: Single-Case Research Designs 303
Chapter 12: Nonexperimental Quantitative Research Methods 333
Chapter 13: Survey Research 364
Chapter 14: Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research 402
Chapter 15: Descriptive Statistics 441
Chapter 16: Inferential Statistics 487
Chapter 17: Preparing the Research Report Using APA Style 533

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Chapter 1
Introduction to Scientific Method
Learning Objectives
1.1 Compare methods of knowledge acquisition in terms of their validity.
1.2 Summarize the scientific approach to knowledge generation.
1.3 Explain the importance of the basic assumptions that drive scientific research.
1.4 Describe the characteristics of scientific research and explain why each of these is important.
1.5 Summarize the relationship between empirical observation and theory in scientific research.
1.6 Summarize the objectives of scientific research.
1.7 Contrast the characteristics of pseudoscience with legitimate science.
Chapter Outline
Traditional Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
1.1 Compare methods of knowledge acquisition in terms of their validity
Authority – A basis for acceptance of information because it is acquired from a highly respected source
– problem – information or facts might be inaccurate especially if the authority is not an expert in the area of
inquiry
– can be used when the problem is being identified and the hypothesis is being formed
– can be used in the design phase of a study
– can be used when interpreting the data or how they fit with other data in the field
– an authority is an expert whose facts and information are subject to testing using the scientific process
Rationalism – The acquisition of knowledge through reasoning
– approach claims that formal deductive reasoning can be used to arrive at new knowledge
– assumes that valid knowledge is acquired only when the correct reasoning processes are used.
– René Descartes (1596–1650)
• believed that knowledge derived from reason was just as valid as, and often superior to, knowledge
gained from observation
– problem- it is not unusual for two individuals to use reasoning to reach different conclusions.

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– Scientists make use of reasoning
• to derive hypotheses and to identify the outcomes that would be required if the hypotheses are true.
– rationalism can be very important for science, but by itself it is insufficient.
Empiricism – The acquisition of knowledge through experience
– a systematic and well-developed philosophy is traced to John Locke (1632–1704) and David Hume (1711–
1776)
• argued that virtually all knowledge is based on experience.
• Locke- tabula rasa
– Problems if used alone
• Our perceptions are affected by a number of variables
• our memory for events does not remain constant
– must be conducted under controlled conditions
– systematic strategies must be used to minimize researcher and participant bias and to maximize objectivity
The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation
1.2 Summarize the scientific approach to knowledge generation.
Science- The approach to producing knowledge used by researchers employing the methods of science
– ancient origins in the Latin verb scire, meaning “to know.”
– the English word “science,” coined by William Whewell (1794–1866) during the 19th century
– is designed to systematically produce reliable and valid knowledge about the natural world.
– the enterprise of science relies on multiple logics, strategies, and methods to produce scientific
knowledge.
– each scientific approach has its particular strengths and limitations and is usable in certain situations.
Induction and Deduction
Induction – A reasoning process that involves going from the specific to general
– the use of statistical analysis in psychological research can be considered inductive reasoning.
• When researchers rely on samples and generalize to populations
– a probabilistic form of reasoning provides statements of what is likely to be true and/or occur in the future,
based on current observations.
Deduction – A reasoning process that involves going from the general to the specific
– classically defined by Aristotle
– when researchers develop hypotheses, they routinely deduce the observable consequences that must occur if
they are going to claim (after collecting data) that the hypothesis is supported or not supported.
– science makes use of both inductive and deductive thinking
• induction drives the exploratory or discovery arm of science
• deduction drives the knowledge testing arm of science.
Hypothesis testing- The process of testing a predicted relationship or hypothesis by making observations and
then comparing the observed facts with the hypothesis or predicted relationship.
– hypothesis testing relies on the logic of confirmation.
– Classical hypothesis testing where the researcher hopes to verify the hypothesis as true
• criticized by the philosopher of science Karl Popper (1902–1994).
• Popper pointed out that the verification of hypotheses was based on a logical fallacy (known as

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affirming the consequent).
• Popper argued that science should rest on a deductively valid form of reasoning (1968).
• Falsificationism- A deductive approach to science that focuses on falsifying hypotheses as the key
criterion of science
o strength - it helps eliminate false theories from science.
o criticisms- focus is only on falsification and completely rejects induction and the logic of
confirmation.
• Duhem–Quine principle- states that a hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation from other assumptions
• psychologists today rely on a hybrid (i.e., mixture) approach to hypothesis testing that includes
probabilistic thinking, preponderance of evidence, and a mixture of classical hypothesis testing and
Popper’s falsification approach
Science in the 21st Century
– The job of a scientist continues to be to produce reliable and valid knowledge about the natural world.
– Today’s science relies on many approaches that have been shown to be useful in producing warranted and
justified knowledge.
• Science uses both inductive and deductive approaches.
• Science attempts to discover patterns and test hypotheses about the patterns with new people in different
places.
• Science also continues to look for new approaches to help the advancement of knowledge.
– Scientists must be curious, skeptical, creative, and systematic.
– The scientist’s personal wishes and attitudes should not affect his or her observations.
– Science is the preferred way of acquiring reliable, valid, and practical knowledge (i.e., trustworthy
knowledge) about the natural world.
– Science must always conduct research ethically
– Objectivity- goal in science to eliminate or minimize opinion or bias in the conduct of research
Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research
1.3 Explain the importance of the basic assumptions that drive scientific research.
Regularity in Nature
– B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
• science is “a search for order, for uniformities, for lawful relations among the events in nature” (1953,
3).
– If there were no regularity in nature, there could be no understanding, explanation, or knowledge about
nature.
– Without regularity, we could not develop theories or laws or generalizations.
– determinism – the belief that mental process and behaviors are fully caused by prior natural factors
– In our efforts to uncover the laws of psychology, we attempt to identify the variables that are linked together
in a causal chain. These causal chains describe probabilistic causes
– probabilistic causes – a weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always
occur
– The goal of science is to continue to investigate and increase understanding of these complex patterns.

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Reality in Nature- the assumption that the things we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste are real
– In science, researchers check reality in many ways to obtain objective evidence that what is claimed is true.
– Researchers interact with a natural world (that includes social objects such as attitudes, beliefs, institutions),
and, in science, this reality must have primary say in our scientific claims. This is why researchers collect
and analyze data.
Discoverability- the assumption it is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature
– Nature is very reluctant to reveal its secrets.
– Scientists have been working on discovering the cause and cure for cancer for decades.
– An intensive effort is also taking place within the scientific community to identify the causes of autism.
– Discoverability incorporates two components
• The first is discovery of the pieces of the puzzle
– The second is putting the pieces together, or discovery of the nature of the total picture.
Characteristics of Scientific Research
1.4 Describe the characteristics of scientific research and explain why each of these is important.
Empirical- Research that is based on data
– Science relies on data collected using the tools of science such as experiments and systematic observations.
– Two important points
• First, in scientific writing, the word data is usually used as the plural form of datum.
• Researchers usually say “the data were” rather than “the data was,” and they say “the data are” rather
than “the data is.”
• Second, science sometimes relies on deductive logics such as mathematics to provide answers to some
of its questions.
• Even when mathematical conclusions are made, these conclusions are then turned into predictions that
are tested with new empirical data.
Control- holding constant or eliminating the influence of extraneous variables so that you can make
unambiguous claims about cause and effect
– Extraneous variable- a variable that might compete with the presumed causal variable in explaining the
outcome.
– One of the most important tasks of the psychological researcher is to identify causal relationships, and
without control for extraneous variables, this is not possible.
– Experiments are the preferred research method when you need to address the issue of cause and effect.
– Placebo effect- Improvement due to participants’ expectations for improvement rather than the actual
treatment
– Randomized controlled trials (RCT)- An experiment where participants are randomly assigned to the groups
Operationalization of Constructs
– It is absolutely essential that we have good empirical measurement of the constructs in our research studies.
– Without good measurement, you cannot trust the results reported in a research study.
– Operationalizing a construct- Identifying an instrument (or set of instruments) to accurately measure a
construct

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– operational definition- The result of operationalizing a construct
– Once this construct has been operationalized, meaning can be communicated with minimal ambiguity and
maximum precision.
Replication- the reproduction of the results of a study in a new study
– key point: You should always be cautious when interpreting findings from a single study in isolation from
other research.
– To make a general claim, you must know whether the same results will be found if the study is repeated.
– If the findings are not repeatable, they were either due to chance or they operate differently in different
contexts or with different people.
– If the variables of interest operate differently in different contexts, then contextual factors must be
systematically examined in additional research.
– Although the need for replication is a central characteristic of scientific research, few researchers devote
their time and energy to exact replication
– Open Science Collaboration (2015)
– partial replication is seen when the key variables of interest are included in multiple research studies that are
slightly different.
– Meta-analysis- a quantitative technique for describing the relationship between variables across multiple
research studies
Evidence not Proof
– researchers rarely use the words prove or proof in regard to their scientific claim. (You will hear advertisers
claiming proof.)
– science provides evidence that varies from very weak to very strong.
– In empirical research, we leave open the possibility that future research could show that we have made a
mistake when viewed from a new perspective or with new data.
– Fred Kerlinger (1986) quote, see 1 in textbook
– The American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990) quote, see 1 in textbook
– The key point is that when you read published scientific reports, you will not see researchers making claims
of proof—you will see researchers providing and discussing the evidence for their probabilistic claims.

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– you should remove the word “proof” from your discussion and replace it with the word “evidence.”
Role of Theory in Scientific Research
1.5 Summarize the relationship between empirical observation and theory in scientific research.
– Scientific research can result in the accumulation of a highly reliable set of facts.
– A theory helps to explain how and why a phenomenon operates as it does.
– Theory- an explanation of how and why something operates.
– A good theory will also suggest new hypotheses that are capable of being tested empirically.
– There is a constant interaction between theory and empirical observation, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
– Logic of discovery- The inductive or discovery part of the scientific process
– Logic of justification- The deductive or theory-testing part of the scientific process
– The outcome of the future research then feeds back into and determines the usefulness of the theory, and
this process continues again and again.

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Objectives of Psychological Research
1.6 Summarize the objectives of scientific research.
Strong scientific understanding requires four specific objectives: description, explanation, prediction, and
control.
Description- the portrayal of a situation or phenomenon
– You must identify the characteristics of the phenomenon and then determine the degree to which they exist.
– Any new area of study usually begins with an exploratory descriptive process, because it identifies the
variables that exist.
– Only after we have some knowledge of what variables exist can we begin to explain why and how they
operate.
Explanation- knowledge of how and why a phenomenon operates, including its causes and the conditions under
which the causes operate.
– We must be able to identify the antecedent conditions that result in the occurrence of the phenomenon.
– Scientists recognize that most phenomena are multidetermined and that new evidence might necessitate
revising an explanation or expanding it to include new information including information about causal
process.
– As the research process proceeds, our explanations become more accurate and complete.
– With this increasing knowledge comes the ability to predict and possibly control what happens.
Prediction- the ability to anticipate the occurrence of an event
– Making accurate predictions requires knowledge of the antecedent conditions that produce such a
phenomenon.
– To the extent that we cannot accurately predict a phenomenon, we have a gap in our understanding of it.
Control- manipulation of the conditions that cause a phenomenon in order to bring about desired outcomes
– Control requires knowledge of the causes or antecedent conditions of a phenomenon.
– When the antecedent causal conditions are known, they can be manipulated to produce the desired
phenomenon.
– Once psychologists understand the conditions that produce an outcome, the outcome can potentially be
controlled by either allowing or not allowing the conditions to exist.
– Three different ways to use the term control

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1. Manipulation of antecedent conditions to produce a change in mental processes and behavior
2. eliminating the influence of extraneous variables
3. the group that does not receive the active ingredient believed to produce the effect
Pseudoscience
1.7 Contrast the characteristics of pseudoscience with legitimate science.
– Pseudoscience- an approach that claims to be scientific but is based on methods and practices that violate
many tenets of science.
– Pseudoscientific claims often are made in an attempt to gain legitimacy.
Multiple-choice questions
1. Which of the following is NOT a good reason for psychology students to take a research methods course?
a. It will allow you to become a better consumer of the scientific literature
*b. It requires more rigorous thinking than is typically found in other psychology courses
c. The content of psychology courses is typically based on scientific findings
d. You need to be able to evaluate the adequacy of the many claims you encounter daily
2. Which of the following is a reason for taking a Research Methods course?
a. To develop critical and analytic thinking skills.
b. To learn how to conduct psychological research.
c. To become an informed and critical consumer of information.
*d. All of the above
3. Being an informed and critical consumer of information will help you to critically read which of the
following?
a. popular magazines
b. newspaper
c. scientific journal
*d. all of the above
4. If you accept your physician’s explanation for your illness without researching your condition or asking how

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she came to her conclusion, you are relying on as a source of knowledge.
*a. authority
b. reason
c. intuition
d. science
5. Consulting the expertise of an Authority can be useful when
a. designing a study.
b. forming a hypothesis
c. interpreting data
*d. All of the above
6. Which of the following methods is NOT useful when forming a hypothesis?
a. Empiricism
*b. Hoaxing
c. Rationalism
d. Authority
7. After every trip Pete takes to the automatic carwash he finds a new ding in his car. He concludes that this
automatic carwash damages cars. He is relying on what source of knowledge?
a. Intuition
b. Rationalism
*c. Empiricism
d. Science
8. One approach to gaining knowledge is known as and involves using reasoning to acquire knowledge.
a. determinism
b. logic of discovery
*c. rationalism
d. naturalism
9. _____________ is an important part of the scientific approach that is based on the notion that the origin of all
knowledge is from our senses.
a. Rationalism
b. Intuition
*c. Empiricism
d. Authority
10. Which of the following is a problem researchers face when gaining knowledge or information from an
authority?
a. An authority can sometimes be hard to reach by phone or email.

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b. Those with authority don’t have time to deal with individuals who have less knowledge than they do.
*c. Information or facts might be inaccurate if the authority is not an expert in the area of inquiry.
d. none of the above
11. Which of the following is a problem researchers face when gaining knowledge through rationalism?
*a. Two individuals can use reasoning to reach different conclusions.
b. Knowledge gained through rationalism is usually invalid.
c. Rationalism does not lead to new knowledge.
d. Knowledge gained through rationalism is too complicated for most individuals to understand.
12. Which of the following individuals believed that knowledge derived from reason is just as valid as
knowledge gained from observation.
a. John Locke
b. Aristotle
c. Plato
*d. Rene Descartes
13. Which of the following is a problem researchers face when gaining knowledge or information from
empiricism alone?
a. Perceptions are affected by a number of variables
b. Knowledge gained through empiricism is usually invalid.
c. Memory for evens does not remain constant.
*d. both a and c
14. Dr. Hendry is trying to gain knowledge about excessive force used by law enforcement. She conducts ride
alongs with local law enforcement but can’t help but communicate to the officers when she thinks they are
using too much force. Which of the following is the problem with Dr. Hendry’s use of empiricism?
a. participant bias
b. objectivity
*c. researcher bias
d. memory bias
15. Whewell believed _________ that should be designed to systematically produce reliable and valid
knowledge about the national world.
a. Psychology
*b. Science
c. Induction
d. Rationalism
16. Latané and Darnley (1969) were one of the first to conduct experiments on the now well known “bystander
effect”. They were prompted to conduct these experiments by the famous case of the murder of Kitty
Genovese. When a specific situation leads to a general understanding of behavior, this is called?

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a. empiricism
b. deduction
c. naturalism
*d. induction
17. Tom was experiencing dizziness just before he ate his lunch and noted that after he started eating, his
dizziness disappeared. From this he inferred that dizziness was due to a lack of nutrition and whenever
someone complained of dizziness, he encouraged them to eat. His inference that dizziness is due to lack of
nutrition demonstrates what reasoning process?
a. deduction
b. hypothesis testing
*c. induction
d. naturalism
18. Which of the following is the best example of using inductive reasoning?
a. Developing a hypothesis based on an established theory
b. Developing a theory of aggression based on your observation of children
*c. Deducing that video games will contribute to a specific child’s aggression
d. Developing a theory based on intuition
19. Suzy was working on her doctoral dissertation and in her social psychology class she learned that social
facilitation, or the presence of others, influences performance. Based on this information she hypothesized
that a person would run faster when running in a group of people than when running alone. In forming this
hypothesis, Suzy used what type of reasoning process?
*a. Deduction
b. Naturalism
c. Social rationalism
d. Induction
20. Social Learning theory states that “we learn from others.” This broad theory has lead to the testing of many
specific hypotheses such as “Children learn manners from their parents.” This is an example of what type of
reasoning?
a. empiricism
*b. deduction
c. naturalism
d. induction
21. __________ is the process off reasoning that involves going from the specific to general.
a. deduction
b. empiricism
c. science
*d. induction

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22. __________ is the process off reasoning that involves going from general to the specific.
*a. Deduction
b. Empiricism
c. Science
d. Induction
23. _________ reasoning is used when statistical analysis is used in psychological research.
a. Deductive
b. Empirical
c. Rational
*d. Inductive
24. In science, __________ reasoning drives the knowledge testing arm of science while _________ reasoning
drives the discovery arm of science.
a. Inductive; deductive
*b. Deductive; inductive
c. Empirical; rational
d. Rational; Empirical
25. Karl Popper advocated a deductive approach to science that focused on attempting to disprove hypotheses.
His approach is known as
a. logical positivism
*b. falsificationism
c. determinability
d. naturalism
26. Dr. Stokley has derived a hypothesis from Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning. Dr. Stokley wants to
collect factual information and evidence to test his hypothesis. Which of the following refers to the process
he will use?
a. Rationalism
*b. Hypothesis Testing
c. Induction
d. Normal Science
27. _________ states that a hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation from other assumptions.
a. Falsificationism
b. Positivism
*c. The Duhem-Quine Principle
d. Tabula Rasa
28. According to the textbook, a scientist must be

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a. creative
b. systematic
c. skeptical
*d. all of the above
29. ____________ is a goal of science to eliminate or minimize opinion or bias in the conduct of research.
*a. Objectivity
b. Rationalism
c. Induction
d. Falsificationism
30. In order to have a science of behavior, we have to accept the basic assumption that
a. psychology focuses in perceptions, images, and other phenomena that have no real basis in nature.
b. the underlying causes of behavior are usually irrational or illogical.
*c. there are lawful, deterministic relations between behavior and its causes.
d. there are no lawful relations between behavior and its causes
31. Psychologists use the concept of determinism to mean
*a. behaviors and mental processes are caused by prior natural factors.
b. behaviors and mental processes are predetermined from birth.
c. humans can freely choose their destiny.
d. behavior can be understood through reasoning.
32. __________ is a weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always occur.
a. Weak determinism
*b. Probabilistic causes
c. Mild determinism
d. Deterministic causes
33. Which of the following refers to the belief that all forms of behavior have causes that are potentially
knowable?
a. determinism
b. falsifiability
*c. discoverability
d. empiricism
34. Which of the following is NOT a basic assumption underlying scientific research?
a. regularity in nature
b. reality in nature
c. discoverability
*d. controllability

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