Test Bank for Understanding Psychology, 12th Edition

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
1
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology
Multiple-Choice
What Is Psychology?
1.1 Psychology is the scientific study of ________.
a. how personality can be determined by the size and shape of one’s head
b. behavior and mental processes
Correct: Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes.
c. the physiological functions of the brain
Incorrect: While areas of psychology may examine this topic, it is the study of behavior and
mental processes.
d. how cultures and societies develop and interact with each other
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.2 The American Psychological Association is made up of _______ divisions of psychology
that study many different areas within the field.
a. about ten
b. about 25
c. over 30
d. over 50
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.3 A group of psychologists study physical, mental, social and emotional growth from the
prenatal period through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. They are most likely to
be ________ psychologists.
a. developmental
Correct: Developmental psychologists study all aspects of growth and change from conception
through death.
b. social

Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
2
Incorrect: Social psychologists study the bidirectional effects that people have on each other,
including thoughts, feelings, and actions.
c. personality
d. organizational
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.4 Developmental psychologists focus mainly on studying ________.
a. adolescent changes and development
b. adulthood
Incorrect: Developmental psychologists study more than just the period of adulthood.
c. the entire developmental spectrum from infancy through adulthood
Correct: Developmental psychologists study all aspects of human growth from the prenatal
period through old age.
d. infancy and childhood development
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.5 ________ are interested in the workings of the brain and the nervous system.
a. Experimental psychologists
Incorrect: Experimental psychologists are interested in behavior and mental processes more
generally.
b. Psychobiologists
c. Behavioral geneticists
d. Neuropsychologists
Correct: Neuropsychologists are interested in the workings of the brain and nervous system.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy

Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
3
1.6 A group of psychologists are interested in how hormones, psychoactive medications, and
“social drugs” affect us. They are most likely to be ________.
a. neuropsychologists
Incorrect: A neuropsychologist would definitely be interested in how drugs affect the brain, but
the more general answer of psychobiologist is the best choice.
b. physiological psychologists
Correct: Physiological psychologists are interested in the biological bases of human behavior,
which includes the way that chemicals such as hormones and drugs affect individuals’ actions.
c. experimental psychologists
d. behavioral geneticists
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.7 A group of psychologists conduct research on basic psychological processes, including
learning, memory, sensation, perception, thinking, motivation, and emotion. They are most likely
to be ________ psychologists.
a. physiological
b. clinical
c. experimental
Correct: Experimental psychologists are interested in basic psychological processes.
d. psychometric
Incorrect: Psychometric psychologists are interested in measurement in psychology.
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.8 A group of psychologists study the differences among individuals’ traits such as anxiety,
sociability, self-esteem, emotional stability, and aggressiveness. They are most likely to be
________ psychologists.
a. clinical
b. developmental
Incorrect: A developmental psychologist might have some interest in how personality develops,
but the process of development is his or her primary interest.
c. psychometric
d. personality
Correct: Personality psychologists have an interest in identifying and understanding the
differences between individuals.
Answer: d

Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
4
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.9 A group of psychologists at a cocktail party are discussing what kinds of questions are most
studied and useful in the field of psychology. Which of the following pairs of psychologists are
most likely to find agreement?
a. industrial/organizational and experimental psychologists
Incorrect: I/O psychologists are interested in the application of psychology in the workplace,
while experimental psychologists are more interested in conducting pure research.
b. industrial/organizational and physiological psychologists
c. clinical and counseling psychologists
Correct: Clinical and counseling psychology are two subdisciplines that share a lot of features,
including dealing with patients, mental illness, and treatment.
d. personality and experimental psychologists
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
2 yr.: 71% r = .21
1.10 A group of psychologists studies how people influence one another, exploring issues such
as first impressions, interpersonal attraction, and how attitudes are formed and maintained. These
psychologists are most likely to be ________ psychologists.
a. developmental
b. experimental
c. social
Correct: Social psychologists focus on the manner in which the interactions between human
beings affect their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
d. personality
Incorrect: Personality psychologists focus more on the individual factors that differentiate one
individual from another, and do not emphasize the interactions between people as much as
social psychologists do.
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy

Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
5
1.11 In recent years, several Japanese automobile companies have opened manufacturing plants
in the United States, bringing Japanese management practices with them. For the most part,
American workers at these plants have refused to unionize in the traditional American mold,
preferring to work under the Japanese model. Of the following mental health professionals,
________ psychologists would probably be most interested in these events.
a. developmental
b. industrial/organizational
Correct: I/O psychologists are interested in the application of psychological principles in the
workplace.
c. social
Incorrect: The interaction of two different groups would be of interest to a social psychologist,
but the added dimension of making the workplace more successful and productive makes this
example most relevant to an I/O psychologist.
d. experimental
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.1 Define psychology and describe some of the major subfields within
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
2 yr.: 79% r = .30; 2 yr.: 82% r = .23
1.12 Abigail goes to school with a set of twins. She is interested in why, even though they are
identical, the two girls act differently. She knows that one sister grew up in their father’s
household, and the other lived exclusively with their mother. Abigail’s interest and question best
could fall under which enduring question in psychology?
a. Person-Situation
Incorrect: This issue relates to whether we are masters of our fate or victims of circumstance,
making Nature-Nurture the best choice.
b. Nature-Nurture
Correct: Abigail is interested in the impact of genetics versus environment on behavior.
c. Stability-Change
d. Diversity-Universality
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.2 Describe the five enduring issues that cut across the subfields of
psychology.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.13 A scientist decides to solve a problem by collecting data, generating a theory to explain the
data, producing testable hypotheses based on those theories, and systematically testing those
hypotheses empirically. The scientist is using ________.
a. the inductive method

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
6
b. the deductive method
c. the scientific method
Correct: The scientific method is a step-by-step process for asking questions and determining the
correct answers.
d. objective introspection
Incorrect: Objective introspection, or “looking inward,” is a method that was used by
structuralists to determine the basic elements of consciousness.
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.3 Explain what psychology has in common with other sciences, how
psychologists use the scientific method, and the difference between theories and hypotheses.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.14 Each of the following characterizes a state of mind necessary for critical thinking except
________.
a. a willingness to submit your own beliefs to scrutiny
b. creativity
Correct: It is not necessary to think creatively in order to think critically.
c. a willingness to challenge the opinions of others
d. objectivity
Incorrect: One must be willing to look at a situation objectively, or without bias, in order to think
critically.
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.4 Characterize critical thinking by its various steps.
Topic: What Is Psychology?
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
The Growth of Psychology as a Science
1.15 The history of psychology can be divided into ________ main stages.
a. two
b. three
Correct: There are three stages, the emergence of a science of the mind, the behaviorist decades,
and the “cognitive revolution.”
c. four
d. five
Incorrect: There are three stages, the final one beginning in the late 1800s when the scientific
method began to be applied systematically to questions that had puzzled philosophers for
centuries.
Answer: b

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
7
Learning Objective: 1.5 Describe the emergence of scientific psychology in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries.
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.16 At the beginning of the 20th century, most university psychology programs were located in
________.
a. philosophy departments
Correct: At the beginning of the 20th century, psychology programs were in the philosophy
department.
b. education departments
c. medical schools
d. biology departments
Incorrect: Initially, psychology was defined as the study of mental processes.
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.17 The first psychology laboratory was founded by ________.
a. James
b. Watson
c. Titchener
Incorrect: Titchener was a student of Wundt, but Wundt is credited with founding the first
psychology laboratory.
d. Wundt
Correct: Most psychologists agree that psychology as a science was founded by Wundt.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.18 Most psychologists agree that psychology, as a science, was born in ________.
a. 1879
Correct: Wundt’s laboratory was founded in Germany in 1879, when most psychologists agree
psychology as a science was born.
b. 1921
c. 1909
d. 1979

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
8
Incorrect: In the public eye, a laboratory identified a field of inquiry as “science,” which Wundt
accomplished a century before.
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.19 Wundt was primarily interested in memory and _______, the process by which we
determine what we are going to attend to at any given moment.
a. structuralism
b. behaviorism
Incorrect: Behaviorism is the school of psychology that studies only observable and measurable
behavior.
c. selective attention
Correct: Wundt’s approach to study was referred to as voluntarism, but his primary interests
were memory and selective attention.
d. functionalism
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.20 According to Wundt, attention is controlled by ________.
a. intentions and motives
Correct: Wundt believed that intentions and motives controlled attention, which in turn
controlled perception, thought, and memory.
b. perception and memory
c. thought and memory
d. perception and behavior
Incorrect: Behaviorists believe that all mental experiences are nothing more than physiological
changes in response to experiences.
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
9
1.21 Wundt used the term ________ to describe his view of psychology.
a. voluntarism
Correct: Wundt’s approach to study was referred to as voluntarism, but his primary interests
were memory and selective attention.
b. cognitism
Incorrect: Cognitive psychology is the study of our mental processes in the broadest sense.
c. functionalism
d. mentalism
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.22 James argued that consciousness ________.
a. is comprised of “atoms of thought”
Incorrect: Atoms of thought reflects the view of Titchener and structuralism.
b. is an illusion
c. flows in a continuous stream
Correct: James believed that perceptions, emotions and images create consciousness in a
continuous stream.
d. does not exist
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.23 James suggested that ________ cannot be separated, as consciousness flows in a continuous
stream.
a. atoms of experience
Incorrect: Atoms of thought reflects the view of Titchener and structuralism.
b. rewards and punishments
c. perceptions, emotions, and images
Correct: James believed that perceptions, emotions and images create consciousness in a
continuous stream.
d. dreams
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
10
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.24 A noted scientist argues that consciousness is a continuous flow, and that perceptions,
associations, sensations and emotions cannot be separated. This scientist is most likely a follower
of ________.
a. Titchener
Incorrect: Titchener, the founder of structuralism, felt that consciousness could be separated into
three basic elements: physical sensations, feelings, and images.
b. Wundt
c. James
Correct: James, the founder of functionalism, believed that consciousness flowed in a continuous
stream.
d. Galton
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.25 William James is noted for founding the ________ school of psychology.
a. Gestalt
b. structuralist
Incorrect: Titchener is viewed as founding the structuralist approach.
c. reductionist
d. functionalist
Correct: James founded the functionalist school.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.26 Titchener believed psychologists should analyze complex experiences in terms of
________.
a. learned behaviors
Incorrect: The study of learned behaviors was the primary crux of behaviorism, which did not
arrive in psychology until the early 1900s.
b. actualizing experiences
c. their basic elements
Correct: This breaking down of consciousness is what led Titchener to refer to this school of
thought as structuralism.

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
11
d. a stream of consciousness
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.27 Titchener broke experience down into ________ basic elements.
a. two
b. three
Correct: Titchener broke experience down into physical sensations, feelings, and images.
c. four
d. five
Incorrect: There were only three elements of consciousness according to E.B. Titchener.
Answer: b
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.28 A noted scientist argues that experience can be broken down into physical sensations
(including sights and sounds), affections or feelings (which are like sensations but less clear),
and images (such as memories or dreams). This scientist is most likely a follower of ________.
a. Galton
b. Wundt
c. James
Incorrect: William James was an American psychologist who focused on the function of
consciousness, not its structure. This question examines the bases of structuralism, which were
proposed by Titchener.
d. Titchener
Correct: These three elements of experience are the basis of structuralism, which was proposed
by Titchener.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
4 yr.: 58% r = .21; 2 yr.: 81% r = .35
1.29 The basic units of experience and their combinations were the foundation of ________.

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
12
a. functionalism
Incorrect: Functionalist theory, or functionalism, is concerned with how an organism uses its
perceptual abilities to function in the environment.
b. Gestalt psychology
c. structuralism
Correct: This is the definition of structuralism.
d. behaviorism
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.30 Freud’s work with his patients convinced him that many nervous ailments are ________.
a. caused by environmental toxins
b. genetically inherited
c. physiological in origin
Incorrect: Freud specifically noted the absence of physical causes of his patient’s complaints.
d. psychological in origin
Correct: The absence of physical indicators of his patient’s ailments led Freud to the concept of
the unconscious.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.31 Psychodynamic theory is most closely associated with ________.
a. James
Incorrect: James is mostly associated with functionalism.
b. Rogers
c. Freud
Correct: Freud and this theory argued that behavior results from psychological factors that
interact within the individual, often outside conscious awareness.
d. Perls
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
13
1.32 According to Freud, much of our behavior is controlled by ________.
a. mental Gestalts
b. environmental stimuli
Incorrect: The influence of environmental stimuli was more central to the behaviorists than to
Freud.
c. unconscious desires
Correct: Freud believed that our unconscious basically controlled our actions, and that “free
will” was a myth.
d. mental associations
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
2 yr.: 90% r = .35; 2 yr.: 96% r = .33; 2 yr.: 86% r = .53
1.33 A psychologist claims that hidden motives and unconscious desires are the basis of
behavior. This psychologist is most likely a(n) ________ psychologist.
a. existential
b. Gestalt
c. psychoanalytic
Correct: The psychoanalytic school of thought places great emphasis on the role of the
unconscious.
d. behavioral
Incorrect: Behavioral psychologists believed that the unconscious did not exist because it could
not be observed and measured.
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
4 yr.: 68% r = .46; 4 yr.: 73% r = .23; 4 yr.: 78% r = .33
1.34 Personality theories contending that personality results from various psychological forces
that interact within the individual, often outside the conscious awareness of the individual, are
________ theories.
a. behavioral
Incorrect: Behavioral theories were focused on observable, measurable behaviors.
b. existential
c. psychodynamic

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
14
Correct: Psychodynamic theories are based on the original work of Freud, called the
psychoanalytic theory.
d. structural-functional
Answer: c
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Understand the Concepts
Difficulty: 2 - Moderate
1.35 Freud’s theories are considered to have laid the foundation for the study of ________.
a. behaviorism
b. the cognitive revolution
c. structuralism
Incorrect: This area was developed by an early contemporary of Freud’s.
d. personality and psychological disorders
Correct: Freud’s early work in psychodynamic theories is considered to have laid the foundation
for this.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and
psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.”
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Apply What You Know
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.36 The idea that psychology should be based only on observable, measurable behavior is
central to ________.
a. cognitive theory
Incorrect: Most behaviorists share the view that psychology should be based on observable,
measurable behavior, while cognitive psychologists value broad mental processes.
b. psychodynamic theory
c. structuralism
d. behaviorism
Correct: Most behaviorists share the view that psychology should be based on observable,
measurable behavior.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology.
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
4 yr.: 70% r = .21

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Morris & Maisto Understanding Psychology 12e Test Bank
15
1.37 John Watson was the founder of the school of thought that became known as ________.
a. functionalism
Incorrect: William James was the founder of functionalism.
b. structuralism
c. humanism
d. behaviorism
Correct: John Watson is considered the founder of behaviorism.
Answer: d
Learning Objective: 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology.
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.38 Psychologists should only study observable, measurable behavior, according to ________.
a. Watson
Correct: Watson believed that psychologists should only study observable, measurable behavior.
b. Kohler
c. Freud
Incorrect: Freud believed that the unconscious should be studied.
d. Titchener
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology.
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 1 - Easy
1.39 Watson attempted to demonstrate that all psychological phenomena were a result of ____.
a. training
Correct: Watson believed all psychological phenomena were a result of training.
b. shaping
c. consciousness
d. learning
Incorrect: Watson phrased that all phenomena were a result of training.
Answer: a
Learning Objective: 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology.
Topic: The Growth of Psychology as a Science
Skill: Remember the Facts
Difficulty: 3 - Difficult
1.40 Skinner rewarded subjects for behaving the way he wanted them to, and termed this
________.
a. shaping
b. training

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