Class Notes for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Sandy Schlieman
Algonquin
College
CHILDREN
A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH
Fifth Canadian Edition
Robert V. Kail
Purdue University
Theresa Zolner
King’s University
Sandy Schlieman
Algonquin
College
CHILDREN
A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH
Fifth Canadian Edition
Robert V. Kail
Purdue University
Theresa Zolner
King’s University
Chapter 1
Children - 1
Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
Children - 1
Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
Chapter 1
Children - 1
Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
Children - 1
Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
Chapter 1
Children - 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
I. MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
A. Canada’s Unique Contribution
a. James Mark Baldwin
b. Canadian Research
c. Access to Historical Information
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
B. The Biological Perspective
a. Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell)
b. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)
(1) Critical Period
(2) Imprinting
(3) Attachment
C. The Psychodynamic Perspective
a. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
b. Psychoanalysis
c. Theory of Personality
(1) Id
(2) Ego
(3) Superego
d. Theory of Psychosexual Development
e. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)
(1) Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1)
D. The Learning Perspective
a. Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
(1) Watson (Little Albert)
b. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
(1) Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement
(2) Punishment
c. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
(1) Imitation of Observational Learning
(2) Self-Efficacy
d. Imitation or Observational Learning
e. Self-efficacy
E. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
a. Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2
F. The Contextual Perspective
a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)
b. Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1
Children - 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
I. MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
A. Canada’s Unique Contribution
a. James Mark Baldwin
b. Canadian Research
c. Access to Historical Information
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
B. The Biological Perspective
a. Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell)
b. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)
(1) Critical Period
(2) Imprinting
(3) Attachment
C. The Psychodynamic Perspective
a. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
b. Psychoanalysis
c. Theory of Personality
(1) Id
(2) Ego
(3) Superego
d. Theory of Psychosexual Development
e. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)
(1) Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1)
D. The Learning Perspective
a. Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
(1) Watson (Little Albert)
b. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
(1) Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement
(2) Punishment
c. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
(1) Imitation of Observational Learning
(2) Self-Efficacy
d. Imitation or Observational Learning
e. Self-efficacy
E. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
a. Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2
F. The Contextual Perspective
a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)
b. Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1
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Chapter 1
Children - 3
G. Newer Approaches to Child Development
a. Information-Processing Theory
b. Evolutionary Theory
c. Developmental Psychopathology
H. The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories
(Refer to Summary Table 1-3)
II. MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
A. Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly
(continuity-versus-discontinuity issue)
B. Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity And
Environment (nature-nurture issue)
C. Children Help Determine Their Own Development
(active-passive child issue)
D. Development In Different Domains Is Connected
(interconnected domains)
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
LO1. Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.
LO2. State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
LO3. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
LO4. Identify the focus of learning theories.
LO5. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's
thinking.
LO6. Name the main points of the contextual approach.
LO7. Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
LO8. Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.
(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)
MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Children - 3
G. Newer Approaches to Child Development
a. Information-Processing Theory
b. Evolutionary Theory
c. Developmental Psychopathology
H. The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories
(Refer to Summary Table 1-3)
II. MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
A. Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly
(continuity-versus-discontinuity issue)
B. Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity And
Environment (nature-nurture issue)
C. Children Help Determine Their Own Development
(active-passive child issue)
D. Development In Different Domains Is Connected
(interconnected domains)
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
LO1. Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.
LO2. State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
LO3. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
LO4. Identify the focus of learning theories.
LO5. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's
thinking.
LO6. Name the main points of the contextual approach.
LO7. Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
LO8. Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.
(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)
MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Loading page 5...
Chapter 1
Children - 4
Key Terms:
theory
natural selection
maturational theory
ethological theory
critical period
imprinting
attachment
psychoanalysis
id
ego
superego
libido
body ego
psychic skin
neuropsychoanalysis
psychodynamic theories
psychosocial theory
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
reinforcement
punishment
imitation
observational (vicarious) learning
social cognitive theory
self-efficacy
culture
ecological theory
mental hardware
mental software
evolutionary developmental psychology
developmental psychopathology
Classroom Activities:
♦ What Do You Know About Childhood? On the first day of class, instructors have
experienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a
“true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course.
After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece of
paper and record their answers to the following questions:
TRUE or FALSE:
1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants. (False)
2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True)
3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be
secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile.
(True)
4. Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers. (False)
5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult. (True)
Children - 4
Key Terms:
theory
natural selection
maturational theory
ethological theory
critical period
imprinting
attachment
psychoanalysis
id
ego
superego
libido
body ego
psychic skin
neuropsychoanalysis
psychodynamic theories
psychosocial theory
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
reinforcement
punishment
imitation
observational (vicarious) learning
social cognitive theory
self-efficacy
culture
ecological theory
mental hardware
mental software
evolutionary developmental psychology
developmental psychopathology
Classroom Activities:
♦ What Do You Know About Childhood? On the first day of class, instructors have
experienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a
“true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course.
After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece of
paper and record their answers to the following questions:
TRUE or FALSE:
1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants. (False)
2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True)
3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be
secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile.
(True)
4. Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers. (False)
5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult. (True)
Loading page 6...
Chapter 1
Children - 5
6. Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their
children. (True)
7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False)
8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False)
9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False)
10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of
children. (True)
Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers.
Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably,
brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding,
spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose of
demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting the
students actively involved in class discussion.
♦ What Do You Want to Know about Childhood? Another first-day activity that
gives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course is
described in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the first
day of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out a
question that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199).
Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected,
sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve as
organizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered.
According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what he
calls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language and
cognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birth
order, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues.
Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additional
students' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in your
course.
Source: Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about child
development. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the
teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Children - 5
6. Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their
children. (True)
7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False)
8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False)
9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False)
10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of
children. (True)
Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers.
Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably,
brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding,
spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose of
demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting the
students actively involved in class discussion.
♦ What Do You Want to Know about Childhood? Another first-day activity that
gives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course is
described in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the first
day of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out a
question that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199).
Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected,
sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve as
organizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered.
According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what he
calls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language and
cognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birth
order, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues.
Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additional
students' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in your
course.
Source: Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about child
development. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the
teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Loading page 7...
Chapter 1
Children - 6
♦ Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to
maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or
plan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that
development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little.
Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may
wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were
utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half
of the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children,
ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is
predictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of your
upbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited?
♦ From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an
evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e.,
they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your
class to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask the
class to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development?
♦ Intrapsychic Conflict. Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group a
component of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it will
be their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Present
each group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an
attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, or
superego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they have
been assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component.
After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each
group is portraying.
♦ Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the text
on “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class to
work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a
positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorder
from each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion will
provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will
facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.
♦ Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is
usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous
with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class
complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.
Children - 6
♦ Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to
maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or
plan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that
development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little.
Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may
wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were
utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half
of the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children,
ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is
predictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of your
upbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited?
♦ From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an
evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e.,
they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your
class to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask the
class to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development?
♦ Intrapsychic Conflict. Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group a
component of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it will
be their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Present
each group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an
attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, or
superego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they have
been assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component.
After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each
group is portraying.
♦ Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the text
on “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class to
work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a
positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorder
from each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion will
provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will
facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.
♦ Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is
usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous
with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class
complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.
Loading page 8...
Chapter 1
Children - 7
“Children See, Children Do.” How do children learn simply by watching
others? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your class
about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four steps
involved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learned
as a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learned
using the following four steps:
(1) Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of
another.
(2) Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time,
the learner must remember what he/she attended to.
(3) Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain
must be reproduced or performed by the learner.
(4) Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform.
Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions
performed by the model.
Source: Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Your Developmental Ecology. Have your students complete Handout 1-4.
This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory,
effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact human
development. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmental
theory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.
Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students
complete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual
differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
Who Do You Agree With? People usually have strong opinions about how
children should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students in
comparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1-
5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify their
answer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This
exercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable
developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed in
small groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take-
home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.
Children - 7
“Children See, Children Do.” How do children learn simply by watching
others? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your class
about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four steps
involved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learned
as a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learned
using the following four steps:
(1) Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of
another.
(2) Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time,
the learner must remember what he/she attended to.
(3) Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain
must be reproduced or performed by the learner.
(4) Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform.
Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions
performed by the model.
Source: Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Your Developmental Ecology. Have your students complete Handout 1-4.
This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory,
effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact human
development. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmental
theory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.
Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students
complete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual
differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
Who Do You Agree With? People usually have strong opinions about how
children should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students in
comparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1-
5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify their
answer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This
exercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable
developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed in
small groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take-
home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.
Loading page 9...
Chapter 1
Children - 8
Films:
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes).
Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment and
his snake phobia work.
B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a complete
review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, and
credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.
B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of
the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.
Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overview
of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and
Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell,
and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of
child development.
Child Development: stepping stones (Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). This
video discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the major
theories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory,
behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective.
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond (Learning Zone
Express, 2009). Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev
Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F.
Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard
Gardner.
The Child’s Mind (Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation the
information-processing approach to understanding cognitive development.
Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56
minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in
clinical therapy, education and child-rearing.
Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview of
Piaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.
Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).
Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical
and operant conditioning are included in this video.
Children - 8
Films:
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes).
Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment and
his snake phobia work.
B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a complete
review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, and
credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.
B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of
the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.
Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overview
of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and
Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell,
and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of
child development.
Child Development: stepping stones (Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). This
video discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the major
theories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory,
behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective.
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond (Learning Zone
Express, 2009). Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev
Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F.
Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard
Gardner.
The Child’s Mind (Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation the
information-processing approach to understanding cognitive development.
Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56
minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in
clinical therapy, education and child-rearing.
Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview of
Piaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.
Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).
Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical
and operant conditioning are included in this video.
Loading page 10...
Chapter 1
Children - 9
Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson
discusses his stage theory of psychosocial development.
Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and its
riders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.
Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes).
This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality,
consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.
Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner
and reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.
The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstration
of classical and operant conditioning with infants.
Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: An
interview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmental
issues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views on
Freud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own
theory.
Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David
Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear
demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.
Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of
cognitive development.
Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an
overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and
sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell,
Skinner and Vygotsky are featured.
Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This video
highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s
psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning
theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.
Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person. (Magic Lantern, 2003, 28
minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the
Children - 9
Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson
discusses his stage theory of psychosocial development.
Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and its
riders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.
Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes).
This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality,
consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.
Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner
and reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.
The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstration
of classical and operant conditioning with infants.
Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: An
interview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmental
issues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views on
Freud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own
theory.
Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David
Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear
demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.
Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of
cognitive development.
Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an
overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and
sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell,
Skinner and Vygotsky are featured.
Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This video
highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s
psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning
theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.
Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person. (Magic Lantern, 2003, 28
minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the
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Chapter 1
Children - 10
impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean
Piaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development.
Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Canadian Learning Company, 1994,
28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, by
using early childhood and primary classrooms.
Children - 10
impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean
Piaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development.
Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Canadian Learning Company, 1994,
28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, by
using early childhood and primary classrooms.
Loading page 12...
Chapter 1
Children - 11
Learning Objectives:
LO9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from
early life.
LO10. Understand how heredity and environment influence development.
LO11. Specify what role children have in their own development.
LO12. State how development in different domains is connected.
Classroom Activities:
♦ Nature-Nurture Demonstration. To clarify the complicated interaction of
genetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticut
recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual
ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent
genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed
to various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very
different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Miller
demonstrates the following cases:
Basic
Ingredient Additional Ingredients Treatment Developmental Outcome
FLOUR SALT + WATER FRYING FLOUR TORTILLA
FLOUR SALT + WATER BAKING MATZO
FLOUR SALT + WATER + YEAST BAKING BREAD
FLOUR SALT + BUTTER +
COCOA + SUGAR
BAKING BROWNIE
Miller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the
nature-nurture issue, including:
(a) the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and
treatments);
(b) how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not
produce a specific food item);
(c) the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g.,
What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and
(d) the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product
(e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest of
the brownie).
MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Children - 11
Learning Objectives:
LO9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from
early life.
LO10. Understand how heredity and environment influence development.
LO11. Specify what role children have in their own development.
LO12. State how development in different domains is connected.
Classroom Activities:
♦ Nature-Nurture Demonstration. To clarify the complicated interaction of
genetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticut
recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual
ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent
genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed
to various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very
different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Miller
demonstrates the following cases:
Basic
Ingredient Additional Ingredients Treatment Developmental Outcome
FLOUR SALT + WATER FRYING FLOUR TORTILLA
FLOUR SALT + WATER BAKING MATZO
FLOUR SALT + WATER + YEAST BAKING BREAD
FLOUR SALT + BUTTER +
COCOA + SUGAR
BAKING BROWNIE
Miller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the
nature-nurture issue, including:
(a) the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and
treatments);
(b) how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not
produce a specific food item);
(c) the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g.,
What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and
(d) the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product
(e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest of
the brownie).
MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Loading page 13...
Chapter 1
Children - 12
Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E.
Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Active-Passive Debate. Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies,
personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role that
children play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or have
students work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective.
To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share their
perspective.
Films:
Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This video
highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors
on human development.
Human Brain Development (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVD
demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the
development of the brain after birth.
Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional
Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven,
includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture
of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family,
peers, school, community, and culture in child development.
Children - 12
Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E.
Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Active-Passive Debate. Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies,
personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role that
children play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or have
students work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective.
To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share their
perspective.
Films:
Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This video
highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors
on human development.
Human Brain Development (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVD
demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the
development of the brain after birth.
Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional
Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven,
includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture
of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family,
peers, school, community, and culture in child development.
Loading page 14...
Chapter 1
Children - 13
INTERNET RESOURCES
• www.cpa.ca
Canadian Psychological Association
• www.apa.org
• www.aps.org
American Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses.
• www.piaget.org
• archivespiaget.ch
These are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives.
• psychclassics.yorku.ca
This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists.
• www.phac-aspc.gc.ca
Public Health Agency of Canada
Childhood and Adolescence
• www.kidshealth.org
Growth and Development and Health related topics
Children - 13
INTERNET RESOURCES
• www.cpa.ca
Canadian Psychological Association
• www.apa.org
• www.aps.org
American Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses.
• www.piaget.org
• archivespiaget.ch
These are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives.
• psychclassics.yorku.ca
This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists.
• www.phac-aspc.gc.ca
Public Health Agency of Canada
Childhood and Adolescence
• www.kidshealth.org
Growth and Development and Health related topics
Loading page 15...
Chapter 1
Children - 14
CASE STUDY: The Science of Child Development
Dungeon of Doom: Part I
“He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount of
time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.”
“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. He
still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”
“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’
Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”
“That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew
spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favourite
video game, Carnival of Carnage.”
1. How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of
video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage?
2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew's
habitual video game playing?
3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?
4. Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the case
described above.
Children - 14
CASE STUDY: The Science of Child Development
Dungeon of Doom: Part I
“He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount of
time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.”
“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. He
still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”
“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’
Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”
“That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew
spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favourite
video game, Carnival of Carnage.”
1. How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of
video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage?
2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew's
habitual video game playing?
3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?
4. Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the case
described above.
Loading page 16...
Chapter 1
Children - 15
HANDOUT 1-1
Learning Objectives for Chapter 1:
Child Development: Theories and Themes
LO1 Describe Canada’s unique contribution to child development.
LO2 State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
LO3 Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
LO4 Identify the focus of learning theories.
LO5 Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in
children's thinking.
LO6 Name the main points of the contextual approach.
LO7 Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
LO8 Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.
LO9 Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted
from early life.
LO10 Understand how heredity and environment influence development.
LO11 Specify what role children have in their own development.
LO12 State how development in different domains is connected.
Children - 15
HANDOUT 1-1
Learning Objectives for Chapter 1:
Child Development: Theories and Themes
LO1 Describe Canada’s unique contribution to child development.
LO2 State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
LO3 Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
LO4 Identify the focus of learning theories.
LO5 Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in
children's thinking.
LO6 Name the main points of the contextual approach.
LO7 Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
LO8 Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.
LO9 Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted
from early life.
LO10 Understand how heredity and environment influence development.
LO11 Specify what role children have in their own development.
LO12 State how development in different domains is connected.
Loading page 17...
Chapter 1
Children - 16
HANDOUT 1-2
The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in
Erikson’s Theory
Directions: What would Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children that fit into the
following four stages?
Psychosocial
Stage Age Challenge Eriksonian Parenting Tips
Basic trust vs.
Mistrust
Birth to 1 year To develop a
sense that the
world is safe; a
“good place.”
Autonomy vs.
Shame & Doubt
1 to 3 years To realize that
one is an
independent
person who can
make decisions.
Initiative vs.
Guilt
3 to 6 years To develop the
ability to try new
things and to
handle failure.
Industry vs.
Inferiority
6 years to
adolescence
To learn basic
skills and to
work with
others.
Children - 16
HANDOUT 1-2
The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in
Erikson’s Theory
Directions: What would Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children that fit into the
following four stages?
Psychosocial
Stage Age Challenge Eriksonian Parenting Tips
Basic trust vs.
Mistrust
Birth to 1 year To develop a
sense that the
world is safe; a
“good place.”
Autonomy vs.
Shame & Doubt
1 to 3 years To realize that
one is an
independent
person who can
make decisions.
Initiative vs.
Guilt
3 to 6 years To develop the
ability to try new
things and to
handle failure.
Industry vs.
Inferiority
6 years to
adolescence
To learn basic
skills and to
work with
others.
Loading page 18...
Chapter 1
Children - 17
HANDOUT 1-3
Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Directions: In each of the following scenarios, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who is
being reinforced. (Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.)
1. Andrew will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed.
Andrew’s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushed
to the hospital if he doesn’t take the medicine as directed.
2. Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth.
3. Julio’s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese fries
since he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food.
4. Angela is a third-grader in Mr. Robertson’s class. Mr. Robertson is giving each
child work materials individually. As Mr. Robertson turns to each child, Angela
makes grunting noises and yells, “teacher, teacher – me next!” On each occasion, Mr.
Robertson turns to Angela and says, “Shhh, wait your turn.”
5. At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including the
dreaded vegetables. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent to
his room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times in the past
week.
Children - 17
HANDOUT 1-3
Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Directions: In each of the following scenarios, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who is
being reinforced. (Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.)
1. Andrew will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed.
Andrew’s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushed
to the hospital if he doesn’t take the medicine as directed.
2. Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth.
3. Julio’s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese fries
since he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food.
4. Angela is a third-grader in Mr. Robertson’s class. Mr. Robertson is giving each
child work materials individually. As Mr. Robertson turns to each child, Angela
makes grunting noises and yells, “teacher, teacher – me next!” On each occasion, Mr.
Robertson turns to Angela and says, “Shhh, wait your turn.”
5. At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including the
dreaded vegetables. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent to
his room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times in the past
week.
Loading page 19...
Chapter 1
Children - 18
HANDOUT 1-4
Your Developmental Ecology
Directions: Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 12). Using Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, reflect on the following influences on your development:
Microsystem Your descriptions and reflections:
your family
your school and teacher
your peer group
the media (favourite TV shows, books, movies,
video games, etc.)
your neighbourhood or surrounding community
Mesosystem
how your parents interacted with your peers
how your parents interacted with your school
whether your parents helped with school work
how your community supported your school or
activities (e.g., sports)
Exosystem
your parents’ jobs
vacations you took
whether there was a divorce in the family
Macrosystem
your ethnic heritage
your religious beliefs
whether you lived in an urban or rural setting
your social class (e.g., lower, middle, upper)
what was going on in the world at the time
(e.g., who was president, wars or conflicts,
social movements, trends or fads, etc.)
Source: Horton, S. & Preisser, G. (1997). Instructor’s resource manual for development across the
lifespan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Children - 18
HANDOUT 1-4
Your Developmental Ecology
Directions: Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 12). Using Urie
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, reflect on the following influences on your development:
Microsystem Your descriptions and reflections:
your family
your school and teacher
your peer group
the media (favourite TV shows, books, movies,
video games, etc.)
your neighbourhood or surrounding community
Mesosystem
how your parents interacted with your peers
how your parents interacted with your school
whether your parents helped with school work
how your community supported your school or
activities (e.g., sports)
Exosystem
your parents’ jobs
vacations you took
whether there was a divorce in the family
Macrosystem
your ethnic heritage
your religious beliefs
whether you lived in an urban or rural setting
your social class (e.g., lower, middle, upper)
what was going on in the world at the time
(e.g., who was president, wars or conflicts,
social movements, trends or fads, etc.)
Source: Horton, S. & Preisser, G. (1997). Instructor’s resource manual for development across the
lifespan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Loading page 20...
Chapter 1
Children - 19
HANDOUT 1-5 A
Who Said That?
Directions: Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that best
represents their viewpoint. Explain your choice.
B. F. Skinner Sigmund Freud
Albert Bandura Ecological Theory
Information-Processing Theory Erik Erikson
John Locke Evolutionary Theory
Arnold Gesell Developmental Psychopathology
Vygotsky
1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behaviour and
development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.
2. Humans are limited in how much information they can process at any given time, but these
limits increase as one develops.
3. Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters little.
4. Presents an understanding of how abnormal development occurs.
5. Focused on ways that adults convey to children the beliefs, customs, and skills of their
culture
6. People learn from observing others.
7. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are
resolved influences later development.
8. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring through
the senses and motor abilities to abstract thinking.
9. Behaviours and characteristics are shaped for survival.
10. One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments one receives.
11. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mould and shape it into a distinct individual.
Children - 19
HANDOUT 1-5 A
Who Said That?
Directions: Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that best
represents their viewpoint. Explain your choice.
B. F. Skinner Sigmund Freud
Albert Bandura Ecological Theory
Information-Processing Theory Erik Erikson
John Locke Evolutionary Theory
Arnold Gesell Developmental Psychopathology
Vygotsky
1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behaviour and
development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.
2. Humans are limited in how much information they can process at any given time, but these
limits increase as one develops.
3. Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters little.
4. Presents an understanding of how abnormal development occurs.
5. Focused on ways that adults convey to children the beliefs, customs, and skills of their
culture
6. People learn from observing others.
7. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are
resolved influences later development.
8. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring through
the senses and motor abilities to abstract thinking.
9. Behaviours and characteristics are shaped for survival.
10. One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments one receives.
11. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mould and shape it into a distinct individual.
Loading page 21...
Chapter 1
Children - 20
HANDOUT 1-5 B
Who Do You Agree With?
Read the following story:
Melissa is three years old and starting her first day of preschool. She cries when her
mother leaves. She continues to do this every day and after two weeks the teachers and
the parents sit down to figure out how to help Melissa.
Teacher 1 says, “Ignore this behaviour, just drop her off, say “goodbye” and we
will settle her with an activity.”
Teacher 2 says, “Melissa needs more information. Let’s tell her what is
happening when it happens and then she will know that after outside time her
parents come to pick her up.”
Teacher 3 says, “Melissa needs some nurturing. We should assign a teacher to
her so she can attach and feel bonded to one of us.”
Choose the statement that you agree with most, even though you might agree with
all of them choose one that feels most right to you. There is no wrong answer.
Compare the response you have chosen to the theoretical perspectives. Which one do
you agree the most?
Children - 20
HANDOUT 1-5 B
Who Do You Agree With?
Read the following story:
Melissa is three years old and starting her first day of preschool. She cries when her
mother leaves. She continues to do this every day and after two weeks the teachers and
the parents sit down to figure out how to help Melissa.
Teacher 1 says, “Ignore this behaviour, just drop her off, say “goodbye” and we
will settle her with an activity.”
Teacher 2 says, “Melissa needs more information. Let’s tell her what is
happening when it happens and then she will know that after outside time her
parents come to pick her up.”
Teacher 3 says, “Melissa needs some nurturing. We should assign a teacher to
her so she can attach and feel bonded to one of us.”
Choose the statement that you agree with most, even though you might agree with
all of them choose one that feels most right to you. There is no wrong answer.
Compare the response you have chosen to the theoretical perspectives. Which one do
you agree the most?
Loading page 22...
Chapter 1
Children - 21
HANDOUT 1-6
Advice Columns
Directions: Indicate below how each theorist would explain these challenges and recommend how the
theorist might respond to them.
B.F. Skinner Sigmund Freud
Atai (6 years old) gets
upset when her father
pays attention to her
younger brother. She
insists on playing video
games and other two-
player games with her
father in an attempt to
exclude her brother.
Erik Erikson Arnold Gesell
Luka (2.5 years old)
insists on bathing and
dressing himself even
though he doesn’t do
either very well.
Albert Bandura Jean Piaget
Emily and Ethan (5-
year-old twins) messy
eaters. After a meal
there is always a mess
on the table, the floor,
and themselves.
Children - 21
HANDOUT 1-6
Advice Columns
Directions: Indicate below how each theorist would explain these challenges and recommend how the
theorist might respond to them.
B.F. Skinner Sigmund Freud
Atai (6 years old) gets
upset when her father
pays attention to her
younger brother. She
insists on playing video
games and other two-
player games with her
father in an attempt to
exclude her brother.
Erik Erikson Arnold Gesell
Luka (2.5 years old)
insists on bathing and
dressing himself even
though he doesn’t do
either very well.
Albert Bandura Jean Piaget
Emily and Ethan (5-
year-old twins) messy
eaters. After a meal
there is always a mess
on the table, the floor,
and themselves.
Loading page 23...
Chapter 2
Children – 1
Chapter 2
Research in Child Development
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
Children – 1
Chapter 2
Research in Child Development
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS
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Chapter 2
Children – 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
I. MODULE 2.1: DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Measurement in Child Development Research
1. Systematic Observation
a. Naturalistic Observation
b. Variables (Maria Montessori)
c. Structured Observation (Mary Ainsworth)
2. Sampling Behaviour with Tasks
a. Ecological Validity
3. Self Reports
a. Demand Characteristics
b. Reliability and Validity
c. Convergent and Divergent Validity
4. Representative Sampling
a. Population
b. Sample
c. Each Canadian region has different population demographics
B. General Designs for Research
1. Correlational Studies
a. Correlational Design
b. Correlation Coefficient (r)
2. Experimental Studies
a. Experiment
b. Independent Variable
c. Dependent Variable
d. Mediator Variable
e. Field Experiment
C. Methods for Studying Development
1. Longitudinal Studies (including microgenetic studies)
2. Sequential Studies (including cohort effects, practice effect and
attrition)
3. Cross-sectional Studies
4. Making Children’s Lives Better: “ Longitudinal Research on Young
People in Canada”
5. Table 2-2 Summary Table of Designs Used in Child Development
Research
D. Ethical Responsibilities
1. Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
2. Minimize risks to research participants
3. Describe the research to potential participants so they can determine
if they wish to participate
Children – 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
I. MODULE 2.1: DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Measurement in Child Development Research
1. Systematic Observation
a. Naturalistic Observation
b. Variables (Maria Montessori)
c. Structured Observation (Mary Ainsworth)
2. Sampling Behaviour with Tasks
a. Ecological Validity
3. Self Reports
a. Demand Characteristics
b. Reliability and Validity
c. Convergent and Divergent Validity
4. Representative Sampling
a. Population
b. Sample
c. Each Canadian region has different population demographics
B. General Designs for Research
1. Correlational Studies
a. Correlational Design
b. Correlation Coefficient (r)
2. Experimental Studies
a. Experiment
b. Independent Variable
c. Dependent Variable
d. Mediator Variable
e. Field Experiment
C. Methods for Studying Development
1. Longitudinal Studies (including microgenetic studies)
2. Sequential Studies (including cohort effects, practice effect and
attrition)
3. Cross-sectional Studies
4. Making Children’s Lives Better: “ Longitudinal Research on Young
People in Canada”
5. Table 2-2 Summary Table of Designs Used in Child Development
Research
D. Ethical Responsibilities
1. Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
2. Minimize risks to research participants
3. Describe the research to potential participants so they can determine
if they wish to participate
Loading page 25...
Chapter 2
Children – 3
4. Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, provide a thorough
explanation of the true nature of the research as soon as possible.
5. Keep results anonymous or confidential
6. Table 2-3 Principles of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
E. Communicating Research Results
II. MODULE 2.2: CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY
POLICY
A. Background and Definition
1. Family Policy
2. Evidence-based Practices
B. Ways to Influence Social Policy
1. Build Understanding of Children and Their Development
2. Serve as an Advocate for Children (Child Find)
3. Evaluate Policies and Programs
4. Develop a Model Program
C. An Emphasis on Policy Implications Improves Research
1. Quasi-experimental Design
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development.
2. List what general research designs are used in child-development research
and note which designs are unique to child-development research.
3. Describe common methods for studying development.
4. Detail what ethical procedures researchers must follow.
5. Understand how researchers communicate results to other scientists.
(See Handout 2-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)
MODULE 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Children – 3
4. Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, provide a thorough
explanation of the true nature of the research as soon as possible.
5. Keep results anonymous or confidential
6. Table 2-3 Principles of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
E. Communicating Research Results
II. MODULE 2.2: CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY
POLICY
A. Background and Definition
1. Family Policy
2. Evidence-based Practices
B. Ways to Influence Social Policy
1. Build Understanding of Children and Their Development
2. Serve as an Advocate for Children (Child Find)
3. Evaluate Policies and Programs
4. Develop a Model Program
C. An Emphasis on Policy Implications Improves Research
1. Quasi-experimental Design
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development.
2. List what general research designs are used in child-development research
and note which designs are unique to child-development research.
3. Describe common methods for studying development.
4. Detail what ethical procedures researchers must follow.
5. Understand how researchers communicate results to other scientists.
(See Handout 2-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)
MODULE 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Loading page 26...
Chapter 2
Children – 4
Key Terms:
systematic observation
naturalistic observation
variables
structured observation
ecological validity
self reports
demand characteristics
reliability
validity
convergent validity
divergent validity
population
sample
correlational study
correlation coefficient(r)
P-Value
descriptive statistics
inferential statistics
experiment
independent variable
dependent variable
mediator variable
field experiment
longitudinal study
microgenetic study
sequential design
cohort effect
practice effect
attrition
cross-sectional study
Classroom Activities:
♦ “Naturalistic Observation? That’s So Simple.” This is usually the
initial reaction voiced by students when naturalistic observation is discussed as a
research tool. Ask the class to design a study utilizing naturalistic observation.
Invite the class to generate several hypotheses, then vote on the one they would
like to pursue. Once the hypothesis is chosen, we proceed to specify
and operationalize variables of interest. The class then discusses some of
the procedural aspects of such a study, including the location, observational
strategies, and concerns about confounding variables. This can be turned into a
class project, students actually conduct the study they designed (after receiving
Ethical Review Board approval).
♦ Understanding Correlations. To illustrate the concept that correlation
does not equal causation, have the class generate examples of variables that co-
vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined.
Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think of
variables that are highly correlated, but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate south
when footballs appear in neighbourhoods).
♦ “Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Question
the Results of Recent Studies.” For an advanced developmental course: Ask
your students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interest
to them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, have
the students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing
Children – 4
Key Terms:
systematic observation
naturalistic observation
variables
structured observation
ecological validity
self reports
demand characteristics
reliability
validity
convergent validity
divergent validity
population
sample
correlational study
correlation coefficient(r)
P-Value
descriptive statistics
inferential statistics
experiment
independent variable
dependent variable
mediator variable
field experiment
longitudinal study
microgenetic study
sequential design
cohort effect
practice effect
attrition
cross-sectional study
Classroom Activities:
♦ “Naturalistic Observation? That’s So Simple.” This is usually the
initial reaction voiced by students when naturalistic observation is discussed as a
research tool. Ask the class to design a study utilizing naturalistic observation.
Invite the class to generate several hypotheses, then vote on the one they would
like to pursue. Once the hypothesis is chosen, we proceed to specify
and operationalize variables of interest. The class then discusses some of
the procedural aspects of such a study, including the location, observational
strategies, and concerns about confounding variables. This can be turned into a
class project, students actually conduct the study they designed (after receiving
Ethical Review Board approval).
♦ Understanding Correlations. To illustrate the concept that correlation
does not equal causation, have the class generate examples of variables that co-
vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined.
Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think of
variables that are highly correlated, but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate south
when footballs appear in neighbourhoods).
♦ “Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Question
the Results of Recent Studies.” For an advanced developmental course: Ask
your students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interest
to them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, have
the students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing
Loading page 27...
Chapter 2
Children – 5
on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures or
procedures used. Since students often ignore the method section of journal
articles, this exercise should render this section less threatening while honing
their critical thinking skills.
For an introductory developmental course: Ask your students to find research
results that have been reported in the mass (print) media, make copies of the stories,
and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, reading
verbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through a
discussion of how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise produces
the same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Students will
develop sharper critical thinking skills.
♦ Designing an Experiment. In small groups, have your students design an
experiment. Handout 2-3 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis,
identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety of
methodological and ethical issues.
♦ Longitudinal versus Cross-sectional Designs. Before the class session
on developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinal
study to read and half a cross-sectional study to read on the same topic. In class,
have the students compare and contrast the results obtained with the
different research designs. Also, have your students debate the advantages
and disadvantages of each design.
♦ Evaluating Developmental Research Methods. As a comprehensive
review of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students to
complete Handout 2-4, either in class or as a homework assignment.
♦ Where Did They Go Wrong? Present your students with brief examples
of unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present.
Handout 2-5 includes some research situations that students can assess. This
handout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homework
assignment.
♦ Guest Speaker: Developmental Researchers. Invite faculty and or
graduate students from your institution to talk about their research. This
gives students an opportunity to learn about the Developmental Psychology
research occurring around them as well as to participate as volunteers in a
research lab.
Children – 5
on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures or
procedures used. Since students often ignore the method section of journal
articles, this exercise should render this section less threatening while honing
their critical thinking skills.
For an introductory developmental course: Ask your students to find research
results that have been reported in the mass (print) media, make copies of the stories,
and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, reading
verbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through a
discussion of how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise produces
the same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Students will
develop sharper critical thinking skills.
♦ Designing an Experiment. In small groups, have your students design an
experiment. Handout 2-3 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis,
identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety of
methodological and ethical issues.
♦ Longitudinal versus Cross-sectional Designs. Before the class session
on developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinal
study to read and half a cross-sectional study to read on the same topic. In class,
have the students compare and contrast the results obtained with the
different research designs. Also, have your students debate the advantages
and disadvantages of each design.
♦ Evaluating Developmental Research Methods. As a comprehensive
review of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students to
complete Handout 2-4, either in class or as a homework assignment.
♦ Where Did They Go Wrong? Present your students with brief examples
of unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present.
Handout 2-5 includes some research situations that students can assess. This
handout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homework
assignment.
♦ Guest Speaker: Developmental Researchers. Invite faculty and or
graduate students from your institution to talk about their research. This
gives students an opportunity to learn about the Developmental Psychology
research occurring around them as well as to participate as volunteers in a
research lab.
Loading page 28...
Chapter 2
Children – 6
Films:
Observation (Magna Systems, 2003, 27 minutes). The four areas of
development: physical, cognitive, language and social – emotional, the students are
guided through the sequences of naturalistic observation of infants, toddlers and
preschoolers.
My Brother’s Keeper—Ethics in America 11 (Annenberg Learner, 2000, 57
minutes). Families and individuals struggle with college applications, promotions at
work, the actions of their neighbors, and try to determine what to do when important
values about questions of fairness, loyalty and ethics.
A Better Brain: The Ethics of Neuro-Enhancement—Ethics in America II
(Annenberg Learner 2007 57 minutes) New drugs have found a place in the university
setting where students find that pharmaceuticals help them study better, work faster
and remember much more. By enhancing their performance this way, are they
cheating? Are they possibly endangering themselves?
Non-Experimental Research Methods (Shortcuts TV, 16 minutes) Using a range
of classic and contemporary studies, this film illustrates and evaluates the strengths,
weaknesses, and limitations of three different types of non-experimental methods used
by psychologists to study social behavior: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observation and
Self-Report Methods.
Research Methods (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 30 minutes).
An overview of observational and descriptive research is used to illustrate how the
scientific method is used to study the relationship between violent video games and
aggression.
The Scientific Method (Insight Media, 2001, 20 minutes). This video shows how
to plan an experiment and obtain and analyze evidence. It considers the implications of
scientific research, emphasizes the importance of its dissemination, and shows how
scientific controversies arise. The video also considers the limitations of science and the
value of critical thinking.
Understanding Research (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 27
minutes). This is an examination of the scientific method and the ways to collect and
analyze data.
Understanding Psychology: Experimental Methods in Psychology (Insight
Media, 2004, 37 minutes). This DVD is an examination of attractiveness research. It
examines variables that affect a person’s perception of others and considers whether
that perception can be manipulated. The DVD questions whether laboratory and field
experiments yield the same results.
Children – 6
Films:
Observation (Magna Systems, 2003, 27 minutes). The four areas of
development: physical, cognitive, language and social – emotional, the students are
guided through the sequences of naturalistic observation of infants, toddlers and
preschoolers.
My Brother’s Keeper—Ethics in America 11 (Annenberg Learner, 2000, 57
minutes). Families and individuals struggle with college applications, promotions at
work, the actions of their neighbors, and try to determine what to do when important
values about questions of fairness, loyalty and ethics.
A Better Brain: The Ethics of Neuro-Enhancement—Ethics in America II
(Annenberg Learner 2007 57 minutes) New drugs have found a place in the university
setting where students find that pharmaceuticals help them study better, work faster
and remember much more. By enhancing their performance this way, are they
cheating? Are they possibly endangering themselves?
Non-Experimental Research Methods (Shortcuts TV, 16 minutes) Using a range
of classic and contemporary studies, this film illustrates and evaluates the strengths,
weaknesses, and limitations of three different types of non-experimental methods used
by psychologists to study social behavior: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observation and
Self-Report Methods.
Research Methods (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 30 minutes).
An overview of observational and descriptive research is used to illustrate how the
scientific method is used to study the relationship between violent video games and
aggression.
The Scientific Method (Insight Media, 2001, 20 minutes). This video shows how
to plan an experiment and obtain and analyze evidence. It considers the implications of
scientific research, emphasizes the importance of its dissemination, and shows how
scientific controversies arise. The video also considers the limitations of science and the
value of critical thinking.
Understanding Research (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 27
minutes). This is an examination of the scientific method and the ways to collect and
analyze data.
Understanding Psychology: Experimental Methods in Psychology (Insight
Media, 2004, 37 minutes). This DVD is an examination of attractiveness research. It
examines variables that affect a person’s perception of others and considers whether
that perception can be manipulated. The DVD questions whether laboratory and field
experiments yield the same results.
Loading page 29...
Chapter 2
Children – 7
Understanding Psychology: Non-Experimental Research Methods (Insight
Media, 2006, 32 minutes). Researchers in this DVD explain their methodologies, and
expert analyses of young people’s cell phone use. It explores the use of questionnaires,
surveys, interviews, and naturalistic observations.
Children – 7
Understanding Psychology: Non-Experimental Research Methods (Insight
Media, 2006, 32 minutes). Researchers in this DVD explain their methodologies, and
expert analyses of young people’s cell phone use. It explores the use of questionnaires,
surveys, interviews, and naturalistic observations.
Loading page 30...
Chapter 2
Children – 8
Learning Objectives:
6. Describe why child-development researchers have recently become more
involved in designing social policy.
7. State how child-development researchers influence family policy.
8. Discuss how concern for family policy has improved child-development
research.
Key Terms:
family policy
evidence-based practices
quasi-experimental design
Classroom Activities:
♦ Guest Speaker: Child Advocate. Invite a speaker from any local child
advocacy group and ask that speaker to talk with your class about issues that have
been informed and shaped by developmental research. This expert can discuss how
developmental research can be translated into law or public policy.
♦ Guest Speaker: Lawyer Specializing in Divorce Mediation and Custody
Arrangements. Invite a family lawyer who is well-informed about developmental
research pertaining to the impact of divorce on children and how various custody
arrangements influence the development of children. Invite students to prepare
questions in advance that they would like to ask about family law.
♦ Petitioning Policymakers. This exercise could be developed into a major
project to be completed in stages as the course progresses. Divide your students into
groups (or the class can work together as one group if it is a small class) and ask
each group to identify a significant developmental issue that has family policy
implications (e.g., adolescent substance use and abuse, child abuse, teen sexuality
and pregnancy, divorce and custody arrangements, poverty and public assistance
programs, etc.). Each group should thoroughly investigate the developmental
research available on the issue, then contact a person at the local, county,
MODULE 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY
Children – 8
Learning Objectives:
6. Describe why child-development researchers have recently become more
involved in designing social policy.
7. State how child-development researchers influence family policy.
8. Discuss how concern for family policy has improved child-development
research.
Key Terms:
family policy
evidence-based practices
quasi-experimental design
Classroom Activities:
♦ Guest Speaker: Child Advocate. Invite a speaker from any local child
advocacy group and ask that speaker to talk with your class about issues that have
been informed and shaped by developmental research. This expert can discuss how
developmental research can be translated into law or public policy.
♦ Guest Speaker: Lawyer Specializing in Divorce Mediation and Custody
Arrangements. Invite a family lawyer who is well-informed about developmental
research pertaining to the impact of divorce on children and how various custody
arrangements influence the development of children. Invite students to prepare
questions in advance that they would like to ask about family law.
♦ Petitioning Policymakers. This exercise could be developed into a major
project to be completed in stages as the course progresses. Divide your students into
groups (or the class can work together as one group if it is a small class) and ask
each group to identify a significant developmental issue that has family policy
implications (e.g., adolescent substance use and abuse, child abuse, teen sexuality
and pregnancy, divorce and custody arrangements, poverty and public assistance
programs, etc.). Each group should thoroughly investigate the developmental
research available on the issue, then contact a person at the local, county,
MODULE 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY
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Psychology