Class Notes for Exploring Research, 9th Edition

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iINSTRUCTOR’SMANUALEXPLORINGRESEARCHNINTHEDITIONNeil J. SalkindUniversity of Kansas

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iiiTable of ContentsChapter 1:The Role and Importance of ResearchPage 1Chapter 2:The Research Process: Coming to TermsPage14Chapter 3A:Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the ResearchPage27Chapter 3B:The Importance of Practicing Ethics in ResearchPage40Chapter 4:Sampling and GeneralizabilityPage 53Chapter 5:Measurement, Reliability and ValidityPage65Chapter 6:Methods of Measuring BehaviorPage79Chapter 7:Data Collection and Descriptive StatisticsPage91Chapter 8:Introducing Inferential StatisticsPage104Chapter 9:Non-experimental Research: Descriptive and Correlational MethodsPage117Chapter 10:Non-experimental Research: Qualitative MethodsPage129Chapter 11:Pre-and True Experimental Research MethodsPage141Chapter 12:Quasi-Experimental Research: A Close Cousin to Experimental ResearchPage155Chapter 13:Writing a Research ProposalPage168Chapter 14:Writing a Research ManuscriptPage180

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1Say Hello to Research!Chapter 1.The Role and Importance of ResearchCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe purpose of this chapter is to provide students with a basic introduction to thefield ofresearch bydescribing the scientific methodandthetypes of research designs most oftenemployedin the social and behavioral sciences.The overall goal is toprovide an overview tohelp students identify what research is and isn’t, what the purpose of research is,and some of thedifferent ways to carry it out.OBJECTIVESAt the conclusion of this chapter,students should be able to:•Outline an overview of the research process.•Report the many different attributes of high-quality research work•Examine the steps of a simple model of the scientific research process•Distinguish between the three primary dimensions in which research methods differ•Illustrate a research design cheat sheet•Analyze whether there is any distinction between basic research and applied researchCHAPTER OUTLINEI.The Role and Importance of ResearchII.Say Hello to Research!III.What Research Is and What It Isn’tIV.A Model of Scientific InquiryA.Asking the questionB.Identifying the important factorsC.FormulatingahypothesisD.Collecting relevant informationE.TestingthehypothesisF.Working withthehypothesisG.Reconsidering the theoryH.Asking new questionsV.Different Types of ResearchA.Nonexperimental1)Descriptive2)Correlational3)QualitativeB.Experimental

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2C.TrueExperimentalResearchD.Quasi-experimentalResearchVI.What Research Method to Use WhenVII.Basic Research Versus Applied ResearchVIII.The Role and Importance of ResearchSAMPLE STUDY GUIDEIMPORTANT TERMS1.Theory2.Research3.Scientificmethod4.Hypothesis5.Chance6.Nonexperimentalresearch7.Descriptiveresearch8.Qualitativeresearch9.Correlationalresearch10.Experimentalresearch11.Quasi-experimentalresearch12.Basicresearch13.AppliedresearchIMPORTANT CONCEPTS1.List and discuss eight attributes of high quality research.2.Why do we use thescientific method?3.Describeeightsteps of the research process.4.List three types of nonexperimental research described inthetext.5.Describe how experimental and quasi-experimental designs differ and how they are thesame.6.Describe the difference between basic and applied research.LECTURE &DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.According to the text, scientific inquiry follows a cyclical process that begins with aquestion and ends with asking new questions.Explain the process of scientific inquiryby describing each of the steps involved.2.Althougha true experimental design is often thought to be the best when it comes toexamining differencesbetween groups, whenmightaquasi-experimental designbemore appropriate than a true experimental design?

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33.Correlational, descriptive, and historical research are classified under one categoryknown as nonexperimental research.Explain how these types of research are the sameand how they are different.CLASS ACTIVITIES1.To introduce the steps in the research process,you may choose to referenceFigure1.1 inthe text,which will provide students witha visualrepresentationof the cyclicalprocesses thatdefine research.2.While discussing Figure 1.1,posea variety of good and obviously bad researchquestions.Discuss what makes questions good or bad and how the bad ones can beimproved.Do the same with hypotheses.3.Prepare an example research study and walk through the steps in the research processthat are outlined in Figure 1.1.For example, how do voters decide who to vote for in aprimary election?Doestheuse of calculators in mathematics classrooms slow fourthgraders’ mastery of the times tables?Then have the students identifya researchquestion, identifythe important factors, formulate a hypothesis, identify the relevantinformation,and so onwhile you are in class so that they can practice the procedure andyou can discuss it together.4.Assign students to small groups and have each group provide an example and show howthe steps of the research process apply to it.Discuss the examples in class.5.Table1.1 in the text can be used to elicitresponses from students tothe followingquestion:What is the difference between experimental research and nonexperimentalresearch?6.Have students generate aresearchquestionof interest that pertains to their field of study.Referring toFigure 1.2 in the text,walk them through the process of determiningwhether or the not the question they have posed will lead them to an experimental ornonexperimental research design.This is a great way to get students thinking aboutformulating a hypothesis, which will be discussed in furtherdetail in Chapter 2.ADDITIONALRESOURCESJohnston M.V., Ottenbacher K.J., Reichardt, C.S. (1995).Strongquasi-experimentaldesignsforresearch on the effectiveness ofrehabilitation.American Journal of Physical and MedicalRehabilitation.Leedy, P.D. &Ormrod, J.E. (1997).PracticalResearch: Planning and Design.Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997.Harding, J., Wacker, D.P., Cooper, L.J., Asmus, J., Jensen-Kovalan, P. & Grisolano, L.A.(1999).Combining descriptive and experimental analyses of young children withbehavior problems in preschool settings.Behavior Modification23(2),316-33.Flor (1991). An introduction to research and evaluation practice.Journal of ExperimentalEducation 14(1).Peshkin, A. (1993). The goodness of qualitative research.Educational Researcher 22(2),23-29.

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14Chapter 2. The Research Process: Coming to TermsCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe purpose of this chapter is to engage students in formulating research questions that seek tofind solutions.Students will learn some of the basic terms and concepts associated with theresearch process, such as research methods, types of variables, hypotheses, the sample versus thepopulation, and the concept of significance.OBJECTIVESAt the conclusion of this chapter, students should be able to:•Examine a psychological research study that tries to understand the impact of maternalemployment on adolescent development•Recognize new words and phrases that form the basis for much of the communication inresearch•Examine dependent variables, independent variables and the relationship between them•Recognize variables that a beginning producer of research needs to know in order tohave a good foundation•Examine the null hypothesis, the research hypothesis and their differences•Report the concept of generalizability of research work with respect to selecting asample from a population that most closely matches the population characteristics•Analyze the concept of statistical significance to measure the amount of risk we arewilling to take when reaching a conclusion about variable-relationshipsCHAPTER OUTLINEI.The Research Process: Coming to TermsII.From Problem to SolutionIII.The Language of ResearchIV.All About VariablesA.Dependent VariablesB.Independent VariablesC.The Relationship between Independent and Dependent VariablesV.Other Important Types of VariablesVI.HypothesesA.The Null HypothesisB.The Research Hypothesis1)The Nondirectional Research Hypothesis2)The Directional Research HypothesisC.Differences Between the Null Hypothesis and the Research HypothesisD.What Makes a “Good” Hypothesis?

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15VII.Samples and PopulationsVIII.The Concept of SignificanceIX.The Research Process: Coming to TermsIMPORTANT TERMS1.Variable2.Measurement3.Dependentvariable4.Independentvariable5.Controlvariable6.Extraneousvariable7.Moderatorvariable8.Treatmentvariable9.Factorialdesign10.Confounding11.Nullhypothesis12.Chance13.Researchhypothesis14.Directionalresearch hypothesis15.Nondirectionalresearch hypothesis16.Population17.Sample18.Statisticalsignificance19.SignificancelevelLECTURE & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.According to the text, independent variables should be independent of one another.Whyis this an important part of examining the relationship between independent anddependent variables?Provide an example of how independent variables that are relatedmay confound research findings.2.Discuss the characteristics of a good research hypothesis.What distinguishes a nullhypothesis from a research hypothesis?How would you explain the difference betweennondirectional research and directional research hypotheses?3.Why isitimpossible for researchers to be 100%confident that the differences foundbetween groups in a study were due to the hypothesized reason?How might a goodscientist go about reducing the risk that some other competing reason (other than thevariables of interest) is influencing the variables in a study?CLASS ACTIVITIES1.When introducing the different types of variables,you may choosetoreference Table2.1 in the text, which will provide students with definitions of dependent, independent,

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16control, extraneous, and moderator variables.In addition, thistablewill introducestudents to other terms often associated with these types of variables.2.To illustrate the concept of factorial designs, refer to Figure 2.2 and discuss thedifferences between factors and levels of each factor.Have students generate their ownfactorial designs by drawing an experimental design that has at least three independentvariables (i.e.,factors) with 2 to 3 levels each.Be sure to have them also indicate thedependent variable of interest.This makes for a great quiz item!ADDITIONAL RESOURCESNickerson, R.S. (2000). Null hypothesissignificancetesting: a review of an old and continuingcontroversy.Psychological Methods, 5(2), 241-301.Raktoe, B.L., Hedyat, A., & Federer, W.T. (1981).Factorial Designs, New York, NY: JohnWiley & Sons, 2001.Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R.E. (2000).Influence of deviant friends on delinquency:Searching for moderator variables.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology28(4), 313-325.Corina, J.M & Dunlap, W.P. (1997). On the logic and purpose of significance testing.Psychological Methods 2(2), 161-172.Daniel, L.G. (1998). Statistical significance testing: A historical overview of misuse andmisinterpretation with implications for the editorial policies and educational journals.Research in the School 5(2), 23-32.

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27Chapter 3A.Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the ResearchCHAPTER OVERVIEWThis chapter begins with some pointers on selecting a problem worth studying, which includesdefining your interests, then taking your ideas, developing research questions, and then ahypothesis. Then the focus moves to a description of the tools and the steps involved inpreparing a literature review.OBJECTIVES•Outline the reasons as to why the selection of the area in which to work on is extremelyimportant•Analyze the different sources that can lead to ideas for research•List possible research topics•Recall the logical progression in research from idea to question and finally to hypothesis•Examine three types of sources that are consulted during the review of research literature•Analyze the importance of a good research article in helping being familiar with existingresearch on the same topic•Recognize how various forms of electronic tools help in research activities•Report the multiple ways in which the internet helps research•Summarize writing hints with respect to literature reviewCHAPTER OUTLINEI.Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the ResearchII.Selecting a ProblemIII.Defining Your InterestsIV.Ideas, Ideas, Ideas (and What to Do with Them)V.From Idea to Research Question to HypothesisVI.Reviewing the LiteratureA.Using General SourcesB.Using Secondary Sources1)Reviews and Syntheses of LiteratureC.Using Primary Sources1)Journals2)Abstracts3)IndicesVII.Reading and Evaluating ResearchA.What Does a Research Article Look Like?B.Criteria for Judging a Research StudyVIII.Using Electronic Tools in Your Research ActivitiesA.Searching Online

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281)The Value of Online SearchesB.TheGreat Search EnginesC.Using Boolean Operators in a Search1)Using AND2)Using NOT3)Using OR4)Using *D.More About Google1)Word Order and Repetition2)Using the Phonebook3)Looking for Articles Online4)Finding Tons of Directories and Lists5)More About Google Than You Can Imagine6)Advanced Google Search ToolsIX.Using the Internet: Beyond SearchersA.Research Activities and the InternetB.A Bit About E-mail1)How to Be a Good e-mailCitizenC.An Introduction to News Groups and RSS Feeds2)What’s in the NewsD.And, Just a Bit about Web SitesE.Using Social Media in ResearchF.Using Facebook as a Research ToolG.Using Twitter as a Research ToolH.And Here’s the Small PrintX.Writing the Literature ReviewXI.Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research____________________________________________________________________SAMPLE STUDY GUIDEIMPORTANT TERMSGeneralsourcesSecondarysourcesPrimarysourcesPeerreviewBlindAbstractIndicesSearchenginesMeta-search enginesBibliographicdatabaseprogramElectronicmailElectronicnewsgroupsSocialmedia

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29FacebookTwitterIMPORTANT CONCEPTS1)Discuss how to develop an idea into a research question.2)Develop a research hypothesis.3)Define the three types of sources typically consulted when conducting a literature review(i.e.,general, primary, secondary).4)Discuss how to use general, primary,and secondary sources.5)Define terms related to a literature review.6)Summarize how to use sources such as reviewsand journals to conduct a literaturereview.7)Describe how scholarly journals work, including the criteria for judging a researchstudy.8)Define electronic tools available via theinternetand discuss their uses.9)Discuss how to use a bibliographic database program.10)Demonstrate how to write a literature review.11)Discuss how researchers might use social media in their studies.LECTURE &DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.Discuss the different types of sources (i.e.,general, primary,and secondary).What arethe differences among these sources?Why is it important that researchers utilize primarysources when conducting a thorough review of the literature?2.When examining a research article, what are some basic questions a researcher will wantto ask in order to determine the quality of the article?3.What value do computers provide researchers when conducting a review of theliterature?What concerns might there be about the use of electronic resources?4.How can e-mail and social media be used to enhance research?CLASS ACTIVITES1.Bring to class an electronic versionof a literature reviewto project as well as papercopies to hand outto students.Walk through the various components identified in thechapter and ask students questions identifying terms and resources used.2.Arrangea session with your school librarian—most are eager to meet with students todemonstrate the library’s literature review resources and many are equipped to providethe students with a hands-on online review of the resources.Of course, timing is crucialto student interest in this topic, so don’t make it too far in advance of their test orliterature review assignment!

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303.Use Table 3A.1 to discuss stating research questions and developing hypotheses.Havestudents work in groups to develop a research question and a hypothesis.Discuss thesewith the class.4.Use Table 3A.2 in the textto facilitate discussion of the three types of sources availableto researchers.Have students discuss why primary resources are the “meat and potatoes”of the literature review.If there is a computer and link to your library and/or the webavailable you could demonstrate using the library’s indices and abstracts as well as webresources in class and invite students to callout next steps, etc.5.Request that students bring a copy of a research article to class, or provide the class witha copy of a research article and have them judge the quality of the article based on theirreview of the following components of the article: 1) previous research, 2) problem andpurpose, 3) hypothesis, 4) method, 5) sample, 6) results and discussion, 7) references,and 8) general comments/opinions about the article.6.Spend a portion of the class period in a computer lab so that students can explore thevarious search enginesdiscussed in the chapter.Students should choose aresearch topicof interest and utilizeat least three online search engines to obtain information, suchasonline articles and/or abstracts abouttheir particulartopic.7.Use the computer lab to allow students to practice using the online bibliographicresources while you are available to answer questions.

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40Chapter 3B.The Importance of Practicing Ethics in ResearchCHAPTER OVERVIEWThis chapter discusses the importance of ethics in research by first going through a history ofethical lapses, before moving on to how to conduct ethical research, and finally how to ensurehigh ethical standards.OBJECTIVESAt the conclusion of this chapter, students should be able to:•Give the timeline of the history and issues of ethical research since the 1930s•Outline the basic ethical principles that are applicable to all research disciplines•Recognize ethical standards of research as applicable to different research disciplinesCHAPTER OUTLINEI.The Importance of Practicing Ethics in ResearchII.A Bit of HistoryIII.Basic Principles of Ethical ResearchA.Protection from HarmB.Maintenance of PrivacyC.CoercionD.Informed Consenta.Informed Consent with ChildrenE.ConfidentialityF.DebriefingG.Sharing BenefitsIV.Ensuring High Ethical StandardsA.The Role of Professional OrganizationsB.A Summary of Ethical GuidelinesC.Ethics and ChildrenD.Ethics Regarding Online ResearchV.The Importance of Practicing Ethics in ResearchIMPORTANT TERMS1.Protection fromharm2.Confidentiality3.Anonymity4.Coercion5.Informedconsent

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416.Debriefing7.Sharingbenefits8.InstitutionalreviewboardIMPORTANT CONCEPTS1.Summarize why it is important to practice ethical behavior when pursuing research.2.Describe the basic principles of ethical research.3.Distinguish between ethical and unethical research practices, citing examples of each.4.Summarize the role of professional organizations in providing ethical guidelines.LECTURE &DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.According to the text, what are the basic principles of ethical research?Why is itimportant that researchers follow the ethics established by their respective professionalgroups?How might participants be harmed if ethical procedures are not followed?Whatare some ways to ensure high ethical standards?CLASS ACTIVITIES1.Divide students into groups and have each group select one of the items listed in “A Bitof History” and prepare a brief presentation to the class.Follow this with discussionabout what ethical principles were violated in the cited studies and what has been doneto address thembased on the reports and guidelines noted in this section of the text.Isthere more that should be done?2.Provide students with copies of informed consent letters used by colleaguesand havestudents identify the components present as well as what should be included in aninformed consentletter.3.Come to class with a few ideas for unethical research projects.Discuss the researchdesigns with the students and ask them which ethical principles are violated and how theethical concerns might be remedied, if possible.4.Spend a portion of the class period in a computer labto visit some of the professionalorganization websites so that you can review with students the guidelines of professionalorganizations of interest.Havestudentswork in groups to present overviews of theguidelines of several professional organizations.Discuss similarities and differences.5.Have studentsresearchyour school’s research review processand outline the steps thatare needed and the likely timeframes for review.Have students write a sample proposal(ethical or unethical) and simulate submittingitfor review.Have them discuss whethertheir “research project” will be approved or not and why.If you are so inclined, severalstudents could act as the “review board” while others present their research projectproposals.

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42ADDITIONALRESOURCESSales, B.D. & Folkman S. (2000).EthicsinResearchwithHuman Participants. Washington,D.C.: American Psychological Association,2000.Faden, R.R. & Beauchamp, T.L. (1986).A History andTheory of Informed Consent.New York,NY: Oxford Press, 1986.AERA (2000).Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association. AmericanEducational Research Association, retrieved January 16, 2005.http://www.aera.net/abouaeara/?id=22Small, R. (2001). Codes are not enough: What philosophy can contribute to the ethics ofeducational research.Journal of Philosophy of Education 35(3),387-397.Haggerty, L.A. & Hawkins, J. (2000). Informed consent and the limits of confidentiality.Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22(4), 508-514.

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