Class Notes for Psychology: An Exploration, 4th Edition

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Instructor’s ManualForPsychology: An ExplorationFourthEditionSAUNDRA K. CICCARELLIGulf Coast Community CollegeJ. NOLAN WHITEGeorgia College and State UniversityPrepared byAlan SwinkelsSt. Edward’s University

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CONTENTSPrefaceRevel: Pearson’s Interactive Learning Delivery SystemInstructor’s Resources & Frequently Asked QuestionsGeneral Class ActivitiesAbout the Instructor’s Resource Manual AuthorTEXTBOOK CHAPTERSChapter 1the science of psychologyChapter 2the biological perspectiveChapter 3sensation and perceptionChapter 4consciousnessChapter 5learningChapter 6memoryChapter 7cognitive psychologyChapter 8development across the life spanChapter 9motivation, stress, and emotionChapter 10social psychologyChapter 11theories ofpersonalityChapter 12psychological disordersChapter 13psychological therapies

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PREFACEWhy a New Format for the Instructor’s Manual?The Ciccarelli/WhiteInstructor’s Resource Manualis delivered in a format created with the direct feedback ofteachers in mind. We spoke with a range of instructors—from those who have been teaching only a couple ofsemesters, to those who have been teaching for many years. Overwhelmingly, the response we received aroundpotential changes to the instructor’s manual involved accessibility and ease of use. Many instructors lamented the“telephone books” they have received from various publishers and how these large volumes make it difficult to knowexactly what rests inside. Concerns arose around paper usage—printing thousands of these manuals which end upsitting on shelves seems a waste when we are all trying to conserve resources. With these concerns in mind, weasked a number of instructors what the ideal instructor’s manual would be like. Here is what they said:integration of resources-what goes where?For thismanual,we createdLecture Outlinesfor each chapter—using the chapter outlines to integrate thesuggested lecture discussions, activities and other resources directly into the appropriate sections. In addition,weincludedChapter-at-a-Glancegrids at the start of each chapter. These tables provide brief outlinessummarizingthe key information from the Lecture Outlines. Instructors can quickly and easily see the key points of each sectionof the text, aswell as classroom activities and the “best of” media resources available.click and view-seeing the resourcesThe advantage to reviewing theInstructor’s Manualon your computer is the ability to link to specific sections.Lecture discussions, activities,and other resources are integrated in the Lecture Guide. Byclickingon thehyperlinks, you can easily jump to the sectionorpage you want to review.(Note with the Word document, pressCTRL + click.)Hotlinks are provided at the send of each section,(►Return to Lecture Guide)so you can easily jump back to where you were, or back to the start of the chapter(▲Return to Table of Contents.)print what you want, when youwantMany instructors expressed a desire to print only portions of theInstructor’s Manualrather than the entire book. Withour new Lecture Guides and the ability to click on relevant resources, instructors can print and bring to class thoseresources they find useful. Of course if any instructor would prefer to have theentireManual printed and available inhard copy,this can be arranged. Please just ask your local Pearson sales representative.access to the “best of” materialsPearson Education publishes a number of introductory psychology texts and the instructors we spoke withrecommended we review all of our introductory psychology instructor’s manuals,identifythe best lecturesuggestions, classroom activities,and assignments found in each,and use these resources to ensure each Pearsonintroductory text offers instructors the “best of” experience.▲Return to Main Contents

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GETTING STARTED WITH REVELhttps://www.pearson.com/revelMore than 5,000 Revel instructors are connecting and sharing ideas. They’re energizing their classroomsandbrainstorming teaching challenges via Pearson’s growing network of faculty communities. The Revel community isan open, online space where members come together to collaborate and learn from each other. If you’re currentlyteaching with Revel or considering Revel for use in your class, we invite you to join the Revel community.Getting started with Revel is easy:•Identify the Problems You Want to SolveDo you want students to come to class more prepared, havingread their assigned reading? Are your goals focused on improving student success in your course? Are youlooking to increase student engagement? Are you interested in flipping your classrooms so that studentslearn basic course content outside of class, allowing for more active and applied in-class learning?•Keep It SimpleThe process of accessing and navigating these learning solutions needs to be simple andintuitive. Revel has built-in, frequent, low-stakes assessments for students to easily assess theirunderstanding of the material, withoutgetting sidetracked from their required reading assignment.•Track Learning GainsEducators who track and measure learning gains are able to make informed decisionsabout product implementations, course transformations, and redesigns. In addition, they can increase theirability to prove institutional effectiveness, meet accreditation standards, track quality-enhancement plans,and fulfill grant requirements.COURSE CREATION, SET-UP, AND ASSIGNMENTSIf you have used a Pearson digital product in the past,such as MyPsychLab, you can use your same Pearsonaccount info to sign in to Revel.If you do not have a Pearson account, clickEducatorin theGet Startedbox, and click “I would like to requestaccess”.After sign in, you will arrive at Revel’s course homepage. SelectSearch for Materialsin the upper right-hand cornerand enter the title, author, ISBN, or keyword of the text you’ll be using. When you find your text, clickCreateCourse. Fill in your course information, and clickSave.The first time you log in to Revel as an instructor, you will be prompted to “start creating assignments.” ClickGetStarted. You are now ready to:•select textbook content, interactive media, and graded assignments;•set due dates to make sure students know what Revel reading and assessments are due and when;•publish assignments to push content and assignments to students.BUILDING AN ASSESSMENT PLANRevel includes various quiz types to use for both formative and summative assessments. To get started, simplyassign each Revel module you intend to cover in your course. Be sure to consider your assignment due dates. Ifyour goal is for students to come to class more prepared, then be sure to make assignments due before thosetopicsare covered in class.Additionally, think about how you will measure success in this Revel course. What are the quantifiable goals youwant to achieve? Pertinent metrics might include one or both of the following:•an analysis of student engagement using Revel’s built-in reporting features;

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•a comparison of in-class exam scores, final course grades, or retention rates with those of previoussemesters.DASHBOARD AND ANALYTICSBecause students tend to skip optional assignments, it is critical thatRevel contributes to the overall course grade.The recommendation of experienced educators is that Revel should represent at least 10 percent to 20 percent ofthe total course grade. Remember: When you assign a chapter or section in Revel, you are assigning reading,interactives, videos, and assessments. All you need to do is pick the chapters and topics you want to cover, andthen assign them to your students on the Revel assignment calendar. The Performance Dashboard allows you toexport the student grades and provides total points earned for easy manual adjustments to external gradebooks.Instructional design research suggests that certain habits of mind and dispositions are associated with criticalthinking skills. Writing can be used as a tool to foster critical thinking. To get students to move toward adopting thesehabits and dispositions, instruction and assessment should be appropriately complex and focused on supporting,eliciting, and assessing skills such as evaluation, analysis, synthesis, collaboration, and critical reflection. (Cope,Kalantzis, McCarthey, Vojak & Kline, 2011; Liu, Frankel, & Roohr, 2014). As a reminder, all Revel productinformation can be found on the Pearson Revel site:www.pearson.com/revelLMS INTEGRATIONPearson provides Blackboard Learn integration, giving institutions, instructors, and students easy access to Revel.Pearson’s Revel integration delivers streamlined access to everything your students need for the course in theBlackboard Learn environment.SINGLE SIGN-ONWith a single sign-on, students are ready on their first day of class. From your Blackboard course, students haveeasy access to Revel’s interactive blend of author’s narrative, media, and assessment.GRADE SYNCFlexible, on-demand grade synchronization capabilities allow you to control exactly which Revel grades should betransferred to the Blackboard Gradebook.BEFORE YOU GET STARTED•Ask your campus Blackboard Administrator to enable Revel integration viaBlackboard Partner Cloud.•Read ourGetting Started Guide for Blackboard Administratorsathttps://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/educators/lms-integration-services/.•Check with your Pearson representative to learn if your specific Revel course is available and to get aPearson account if you need one.With Revel, Pearson authors have been able to reimagine the way students learn content, applying new andengaging learning and assessment strategies that were not possible in the past with a print textbook. If you wantyour students to read, retain what they have read, understand concepts more fully, and develop and apply criticalthinking skills, you have one choice: REVEL.Further ReadingCope, B., Kalantzis, M., McCarthey, S., Vojak, C., & Kline, S. (2011). Technology-mediated writing assessments:Principles and processes.Computers and Composition,28(2), 79-96.Liu, O. L., Frankel, L., & Roohr, K. C. (2014).Assessing critical thinking in higher education: Current state anddirections for next‐generation assessment.ETS Research Report Series,2014(1), 1-23.▲Return to Main Contents

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GENERAL CLASS ACTIVITIESTo access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or pressCTRL + clickTo return to this Table of Contents, click on click on▲ Return to General Class Activities List►GENERAL CLASS ACTIVITIESActivity: Perceptions of the ProfessorActivity: Learning Student NamesFirst Week of Class Discussion QuestionsFinal Project IdeasAssignment: Exploring Psychology through ArtAssignment: Psychology and the Media▲Return to Main ContentsActivity: Perceptions of the ProfessorThis activity is both a good"icebreaker" for the first class and an opportunity to generate some data for a discussionof impression formation. A basic principle of impression formation is that we form our opinions of others from verylimited information (for example, physical appearance, tone of voice, age, occupation). In this activity, you'll havethe students in your class share their inferences about you. At the start of the first class, enter the classroom and gothrough the normal routine of stating your name, the course title and number, and then go over the syllabus in detail.Immediately after discussing the syllabus, ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper and tell them that you aregoing to ask a series of questions about yourself in order to help them get to know you. Explain that it is their task towrite down their best guess about what the answers are, and assure them that you will later give them all the"correct" answers. Then, proceed to ask them several questions that relate to concrete behaviors or characteristicsor even about more abstract aspects of your personality. Although the questions may vary from class to class (andmay depend on what you are comfortable revealing), potential questions include: How old do you think I am? Am Imarried? What kind of music do I like? What kind of car do I drive? What are some of my favorite TV shows? Whatare my hobbies or favorite leisure time activities? Do I like sports? Do I play any musical instruments? Am I liberalor conservative? Am I a Mac user or aPC fan? Am I a vegetarian? Am I an "outdoorsy" kind of person? Did I go toa large university or a small liberal arts college?You can also give them the opportunity to ask additional questions (with the caveat that you can decline to answer aparticular question for personal reasons). Instead of collecting their answers, go through the questionnaire by firstasking them to share their answers and then giving them the correct answer. You can then use their answers todiscuss impression formation and introduce them to social psychology as a field of study. This exercise, besidesbeing fun for all involved, tends to be effective in "relaxing" the students and encouraging classroom discussion fromthe outset of the course. Lashley (1987) proposed a similar exercise to the one described above using a personalityinventory that is designed to assess the class's perceptions of the professor and illustrate aspects of personperception.Lashley, R. L. (1987). Using students' perceptions of their instructor to illustrate principles of person perception.Teaching ofPsychology, 14, 179-180.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main ContentsActivity: Learning Student NamesOften both teachers and students wish to know each other’s names for facilitation of classroom learning and activity.Smith (1985) provides a nice exercise in creatingmnemonics for students’ names, as well as getting students tobegin thinking about research methodology. This exercise works well during the first week of class and provides apowerful demonstration of the effectiveness of mnemonics.This works best witha class size between 20 and 40.

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Start off by taking attendance, then ask students "Do you think you can remember everyone's name in here…firstAND last names?" Usually, the response is "no way." Then briefly discuss the importance of remembering namesin a social context. Next ask the students to define a mnemonic and provide examples. Students typically describethe First Letter technique for remember the musical scale, "Every Good Boy Does Fine," or "HOMES" for the GreatLakes. Then clarify the definition of mnemonic as a mental device that aids memory that can include visual and/orauditory information.Upon meeting someone for the first time, we tend to rely on visual appearance when making a first impression.Visual cues may help in the formation of an image-based mnemonic. Upon hearing someone's name, you mightnote its acoustic properties and begin thinking of similar-sounding information, such as rhymes.Tell students that they will work in small groups and generate Name Mnemonics for everyperson in their group.Give them an example using your own name.Instructions:Divide students into small groups and create Name Mnemonics for each person in the group, firstAND last names. (You might do this by having students "count-off" to avoid friends sitting together inclass.)Emphasize that each person is to ONLY REMEMBER her or his OWN Name Mnemonic.Emphasize that "anything goes" and the more bizarre and creative, the better.When they are finished, have students return to their seats, andarrange chairs (if possible) into acircle.Next, inform students that they will have to present their name and mnemonic to the class,sotheyshould dotheirbest to try and remember the names because 3 people will be chosen to recall all ofthe names.Each student should then, individually, go to the chalkboard, WRITE their name, SAY theirmnemonic, ERASE their name, and sit down.Ask for volunteers (so as not to really put anyone on the spot) to recall all of the names. Usually,students get between 85-100% of the names correct! It is quite a feat of memory.After about 2-3 volunteers, you should try to name everyone (usually you’ll be pressured to do this bystudents anyway).Ask them again, "Do you think you could have named everyone in here withoutthe mnemonics?"Usually, the class states a resounding "NO."This leads to a discussion about testable hypotheses, and one may choose to further the discussion during adifferent class period on Research Methods. Highlights of a research methods emphasis include confoundingvariables (e.g., knowing others in the class beforehand, practice effects during recall) and experimental design (e.g.,testing the hypothesis of use of mnemonics vs. no mnemonics).Smith, S. M. (1985). A method for teaching name mnemonics.Teaching of Psychology, 12,156-158.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main ContentsFirst Week of Class Discussion Questions1.What do students hope to get from your class?“Why are you here, today, in this course? What can youlearn aboutpsychology?”This is a great way to start class. It gets students involved in issues and ideasthat interest them and can illustrate the breadth of the course content.2.What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology? What are the limitations of thescientific method, and are there any better alternatives available? Students are often skeptical of thescientific method and are eager to point out its flaws, such as the slow incremental progress it generates, itsreliance on measurable phenomena, its susceptibility to experimenter biases, and its sterile methodology.Students often fail to realize, however, that the scientific method is the best tool we have to generate valid,reliable knowledge and that it has provided us with a wealth of discoveries.

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3.What psychological principles do you see at work in your day-to-day life? Psychological principles permeateadvertising, marketing, television, movies, sales, self-help books, fashion, politics, and folk wisdom, to namea few, but students are often unaware of this influence.Pointing out this influence is a good way to keepyour students’ interest.For example, the conceptof “psychological stress,” so prevalent in our culture, wasrarely mentioned fifty years ago.4.Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism.Then ask them how many of them believe infree will. Insist that they cannot have it both ways.You will be surprised to find that many, if not most,students believe in free will.This is a terrific discussion starter, because it conflicts with one of thefundamental assumptions of science and psychology, determinism.You might ask your students whatscience can hope to reveal if the world is not determined.You might also suggest that what feels like freewill to us may be thinly disguised determinism.This simple discussion is often enough to change themanner in which students view themselves and the manner in which they view those around them.5.How would a student establish an appropriate study plan? Have students consider factors related to theirown study habits and see if they can develop a realistic time management (study) plan.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main ContentsFinal Project IdeasMany introductory courses involve a writing component, typically taking the form of “pick a topic of interest to youthat we’ve discussed and write a 10-page research paper on it.” As an alternative to that kind of substantialintegrative exercise, you might consider the following assignments.They are highly recommended for the greaterstudent involvement and active learning they engender, and for their ability to help students synthesize materialacrossthe entire breadth of the course.The Game ProjectMany instructors have adopted "The Game Project" instead of a major paper, and the response has beenoverwhelmingly positive.Working in groups of 3, students are asked to create an original game incorporating theirfavorite psychological concepts.The key requirement is that their game—whichcan be entirely unique or modeledafter an existing game (e.g., Trivial Pursuit, Monopoly)—should be designed so that advancement or success in thegame is dependent on knowledge of psychological concepts covered in the course.Students are asked to designthe game for 2, 3, or 4 players, and so that it takes approximately 20-30 minutes to play.Their games must alsoinclude clear, step-by-step instructions as well as all props needed to play (e.g., dice, cards, board, scoring sheets,and so on).Students turn in their games on the second-to-last day of class, and on the last day of class they have apizza party/game day in which students get an opportunity to play one another's games.Studentshavereportedthat they enjoy the opportunity to review the material (without the pressure of a researchpaper) twice: Once while creating their own game, and once while playing other students' games.Overall, they feltthat the project was challenging and worthwhile, and they really enjoyed the opportunity to be creative in their finalprojects.The creativity and ingenuity students typically display is always impressive; past semesters have seen a 7-foot putting green, Plexiglas pyramids, flaming tiki torches, and board games elaborate enough to be marketed as is!Anadded benefit is that many of the games can be used in future classes as a fun review for students beforeexams.Some criteria for grading the project:Consider the breadth or depth of material covered.Students are free to cover abroad range of information from across the course, or to focus on a more defined set of principles (“Skinner Boxing,”based on operant principles and played in a makeshift boxing ring, was a wild success!).Regardless of theapproach, reward mastery of the material.If breadthis emphasized, look for equal coverage of information.If depthis used, grade on the cohesiveness of the concepts or how they fit together as a logical unit.Effort and creativityshould also be highly rewarded; a game that starts from scratch is more impressive than one that simply covers up aMonopoly board with psychology questions.Finally, presentation counts; neatness, quality of design, and visualimpact should be judged.Ask students to submit a proposal several weeks before “game day” so you can judge thefeasibility of the project and offer suggestions early on.

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Media PortfolioElizabeth Rider (1992) describes a simple but worthwhile project that helps students to develop a scholarlyunderstanding of course material and also to see thereal-world relevance of psychological principles outside of theclassroom.For this project, ask students to develop a “media portfolio” of newspaper and magazine clippings thatillustrate psychological concepts. Encourage them to include samples from a wide variety of sources, includingnewspapers, magazines, editorials, advice and medical columns, cartoons, etc.Rider suggests that students collectat least 15 clippings distributed across each major unit of the course, and that they should annotate each clipping byproviding its source and explaining how it relates to a particular psychological concept, theory, or research findingfrom the text or lecture.(After you have done this project once or twice, you can show students good examples ofportfolios from previous classes.)Portfolios can be collected at the end of the semester and evaluated on four majordimensions:1.relevance of the clippings to the course material2.accuracy of students’ descriptions3.breadth of coverage (i.e., across the range of course topics)4.originality (i.e., ability to make clever or nonobvious connections between clippings and concepts)Additional benefits suggested by Rider are that the portfolios are easy to grade, they can be used in large classes,they promote high studentinterest, and perhaps most importantly, they stimulate students to continue to relatepsychology to current events even after the course ends.Rider, E. A. (1992).Understanding and applying psychology through the use of news clippings.Teaching of Psychology,19, 161-162.Writing a Psychology BookletAnother creative alternative to a final project is to have students work in groups to create a short psychology bookletfor an early-high school audience.For this project, adapted from an exercise suggested by Douglas Vipond, assignyour students near the end of the semester to write a booklet about psychology for a 9th grade class.If possible,select an actual 9th grade class from a nearby high school and, with the help of the teacher, solicit letters from theyoung students introducing themselves and explaining what they generally know about psychology.Specifically, theyoung students should include their definition of psychology, their thoughts about what psychologists are like, whatthey know about topics such as learning, memory, and psychological disorders, and what psychological topics theywould like to know more about.These letters serve two important purposes.First, they provide your students with agood starting point for ideas for topics to cover in their booklets (e.g., your students may want to correctmisperceptions that learning is all about listening to the teacher and studying for tests, or that memory is somethingthat a person has or doesn't have).Second, and more importantly, theyusually illustrate a large gap in the beliefsbetween psychology students,who have begun to see psychology as a scientific enterprise,and younger students,who typically regard psychology as a helping profession (e.g., “It's all about crazy people in institutions”).This gapshould sufficiently motivate your students to show others how interesting, multifaceted, and useful psychology canbe.Depending on your class size, divide students into small groups of about 3 to 5 and explain that each group isresponsible for producing a short booklet.Stress that each booklet should cover approximately 10 to 15 topics, andthat students in the group should distribute the work fairly and equitably.The choice of topics to cover is strictly up tothe students, but they should keep two guiding principles in mind: (1) topics should be explained very clearly andshould accurately represent psychology, and (2) they should be perceived as interesting and useful to a 9th-gradeaudience.Students should also be encouraged to use their imagination and to represent various topics with poems,puzzles, cartoons, or games in addition to brief summaries (in order to avoid producing a "boring" textbook), and thatthey should feel free to use humor in their presentations.Once groups have completed the final version of theirbooklet, evaluate the projects by assigning a group grade that reflects the overall quality of the booklet and individualgrades that reflect the quality of the entries contributed by students individually.Before passing booklets on to your9th-grade audience, share them with your students, who will no doubt be thrilled to see their colleagues' work.According to Vipond, both the younger readers and the psychology students are pleased with the final product.Thepsychology students gain, in addition to a sense of pride and accomplishment, a more thorough understanding ofpsychological concepts through their struggle to explain it in a clear and interesting way to younger students.(Note:In a more involved version of this project suggested by Vipond, the target class is an English composition class

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whose members edit and suggest comments on a draft of your students' booklets before submitting the finalversion.)Vipond, S. (1993).Social motives for writing psychology: Writing for and with younger readers.Teaching of Psychology, 20, 89-93.Poster Session“A 10-page research paper” can sound rather ominous to a lower-division student.As a less-threatening alternative,although one that is equally intensive andequally informative, consider arranging a poster session modeled afterthose at professional conferences.Working in teams (assembled to reflect the size and characteristics of your particular class) students should choosea topic of interest to themandwhich they would like to investigate further.Stressto the studentsthat they shoulddevelop a presentation that integrates and organizes a substantial area of research.The form of the presentation,however, is to be more visual than verbal: Students will develop posters that their classmates can peruse and askquestions about.Although most students seem to grasp the fundamentals of this task, you might facilitate matters bypresenting examples of posters you’ve assembled for conventions, yourself; these could be put on library reserve,used during a class period, or you could use class time to allow students to see examples and work on their ownprojects.Assign this project early in the semester to give students time to find other group members, research their topic, anddevelop their presentation.A proposal for the project and checks on its progress would be in order.This will allowyou to redirect students whose projects might be too similar to one another.Tell students that on the day of theposter session itself, they will be expected to wander throughout the room and ask intelligent questions of thepresenters.Emphasize that one team member should remain near his or her poster to answer questions the otherparticipants might have.Besides grading on the quality, effort, and originality of the presentation, you might consideradding a component reflecting other students’ opinions of the posters.For example, you could develop a ratingsheet on which viewers anonymously rate the knowledgeability or informativeness of presenters.Poster sessions have the advantage of being more dynamic and engaging than research papers, although theymeet the same criteria: Students must perform substantial research beyond the information presented in text orlectures; there must be evidence of critical thinking, synthesis, and analysis of the subject matter; there must beclear communication of information and ideas.Baird, B. N. (1991). In-class poster sessions.Teaching of Psychology,18, 27-29.PsychologyScience FairClosely related to the poster session is the science fair.As with the poster session, students have the opportunity toexplore in depth any topic of interest to them as long as it is psychologically relevant.In contrast to the postersession, however, students are instructed that their project must involve theactive participationof science fairvisitors (i.e., rather than relying on a visual presentation of facts).For maximum participation and interest, thescience fair should be open tothe public.Invite other faculty members, students from other psychology or sciencecourses, and perhaps students from a nearby high school who are interested in psychology.Fish and Fraser, whohave conducted successful science fairs in the past, report avariety of interesting projects.Students have, forexample, created or built their own perceptual illusions, mazes, orsimulatedtachistoscopes; one studentdemonstrated a biofeedback machine;still another gave visitors the experience of being wheelchair bound.According to Fish and Fraser, among the many benefits of the science fair project is that students not only report abetter understanding of psychological principles and their application but they also report exerting more effort andlearning morefrom their textbook and instructor.In addition, this activity promotes cooperation and discourse amongstudents and between students and instructors, and also provides an interesting educational experience for sciencefair visitors.Fish, T. A., & Fraser, I. H. (1993).The science fair: A supplement to the lecture technique.Teaching of Psychology, 20, 231-233.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main Contents

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Assignment: Exploring Psychology through ArtMaureen Pierce suggests a unique ice-breaking assignment that encourages students to explore their ideas aboutpsychology through the creation of a piece of artwork. After you have discussed the definition ofpsychology duringthe first or second class session, ask your students to create a piece of art that expresses and reflects their ownideas about the definition of psychology, some topic in the field of psychology, or something they hope to learn in thecourse. Tell your students that as long as the object reflects a psychological theme, the choice of materials andmedia is up to them. They should also include a short (1–2 page) summary statement that describes how the artreflects their understanding or definition of psychology. They should explain how and why they chose the media andmaterials used as well as how their creation specifically expresses their unique interpretation of psychology. Piercereports that students are typically very creative in using a wide variety of media (including fabrics, modeling clay, andpaints) to create sculptures, mobiles, and collages. She also notes that,in addition to the fact that students areenthusiastic about the assignment,they also appreciatean opportunity tothink critically, to explore the textbook, andto carefully consider their ideas about psychologyat an early stage in the course.Pierce, M. C., & Davis, S. F. (1995).Exploring psychology through the visual realm. Paper presented at the 103rd annual meeting of theAmerican Psychological Association, New York, August.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main ContentsAssignment: Psychology and the MediaDo the media present a distorted image of psychology? The answer to this question is explored in a good first-weekassignment suggested by Lester Sdorow (1994). Instruct your students to spend a week or two observing and notingany coverage of psychology in the media (including radio and television, newspapers and magazines, and motionpictures). Place a copy of Ludy Benjamin's (1986) article on this topic on reserve in the library, and ask students towrite a short (2–3 page) paper discussing the “popular”image of psychology from the perspective of their ownobservations as well as from those noted by Benjamin. Sdorow suggests that students' papers address the followingquestions:(a)Do the media present psychology more as a science or more as a form of common sense?(b)Do the media present the diverse fields of psychology or only a few? (If only a few, which areoverrepresented and which are underrepresented?)(c)Do the media rely more onpsychologists or self-proclaimed experts for information?(d)Do the media present psychological information more in a sober manner or in a sensationalistic manner?Benjamin, L. T. (1986). Why don't they understand us? A history of psychology's public image.American Psychologist,43, 87–94.Sdorow, L. (1994). The Frankenstein course: Teaching assistants, laboratory exercises, and papers in introductory psychology.Paperpresented at the Southwest Regional Conference for Teachers of Psychology, Fort Worth.▲Return to General Class Activities List▲Return to Main Contents

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ABOUT THE AUTHORAlan Swinkels has enjoyed a long association with Pearson Education. Formore than25 years he’s authoredancillaries associated with leading textbooks in general, social,developmental,and abnormal psychology, andauthored or edited almost every kind of material: Instructor’s manuals,Internetcontent, video collections, test itemfiles, audible study guides, PowerPoint collections, and even transparency masters. Swinkels received his PhD insocial psychology from the University of Texas at Austin. He has taught at UT, Loyola Marymount University, andUCLA, and he spent a semester as aVisiting Scholar at Harvard University. He is currently professor and chair ofthe psychology department at St. Edward’s University in Austin, Texas, where he has received several awards forteaching, research, and advising. In 2010,he was named the TexasProfessor of the Year by The CarnegieFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the Council for Advancement and Support of Education.▲Return to Main ContentsACKNOWLEDGMENTSI greatly appreciate the comments and suggestions offered by many colleagues for lecture ideas, classroomactivities, and student projects. A wealth of information awaits you at the National Institute on the Teaching ofPsychology (NITOP, held in St. Petersburg, Florida), as well as special teaching sessions at the annual meetings ofthe American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science. The editorial staff atPearson Educationand Editors, Inc.,proved once again to be capable, competent, and charming: thanks goespecially toDiana Murphy, Amber Mackey, Gina Linko, and Lisa Mafricifor their help with this and other projects.Flaco Jimenez provided 11th-hour support. Grunt work was graciously loaned bySV Productions.Casey,remember that señors rule.Alan SwinkelsSt. Edward’s University3001 South Congress AvenueAustin, TX 78704▲Return to Main Contents

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1The science of psychology1▲TABLE OF CONTENTSTo access the resource listed, click on thehot linked titleor pressCTRL + clickTo return to the Table of Contents, click on▲Return to Table of ContentsTo return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on►Return to Lecture Guide►LECTURE GUIDEThe History of Psychology(p.3)The Field of PsychologyToday(p.4)ScientificResearch(p.5)Ethics of Psychological Research(p.6)Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking(p.7)Chapter Summary(p.7)►FULL CHAPTER RESOURCESChapter-At-A-Glance(p.2)Lecture Guide(p.3)Learning Objectives(p.8)Rapid Review(p.9)Changes fromtheThirdEdition to theFourthEdition(p. 10)Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics(p. 11)Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises(p. 33)Handout Masters(p.45)Revel Multimedia(p.57)MyPsychLabMultimedia(p.58)Practice Quiz andTest YourselfAnswer Keys(p.59)

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter12▼CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCEDetailed OutlineInstructor ResourcesRevelMultimediaThe History of PsychologyWundt, Titchener, and JamesGestalt,Psychoanalysis, and BehaviorismLearning Objectives:1.1, 1.2Lecture Launchers:1.1, 1.2,1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9Activities & Exercises:1.1, 1.2,1.3, 1.4, 1.5Handouts:1.1, 1.2Video: Why Study Psychology?Survey: What Do You Know AboutPsychology?Interactive: Timelineof the History ofPsychologyThe Field of Psychology TodayModernPerspectivesPsychological Professionals and Areas ofSpecializationLearning Objectives:1.3, 1.4Lecture Launchers:1.10, 1.11,1.12Activities & Exercises:1.6, 1.7,1.8Writing Assignment:1.1Video: Diverse PerspectivesVideo: Careers in PsychologyInteractive: Work Settings and Subfieldsof PsychologyScientificResearchThe Scientific ApproachDescriptive MethodsCorrelations: Finding RelationshipsThe ExperimentExperimental Hazards and Controlling for EffectsLearning Objectives:1.5, 1.6,1.7, 1.8, 1.9Lecture Launchers:1.13, 1.14,1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19Activities & Exercises:1.9,1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15,1.16, 1.17, 1.18Handouts:1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6Writing Assignment:1.2Video: Research MethodsVideo: Experiments–Independent vs.Dependent VariablesVideo: Experiments–ExperimentalGroup vs. Control GroupSurvey: Participating in a ResearchSurveyInteractive: ScatterplotsInteractive: A Sample ExperimentEthics of Psychological ResearchThe Guidelines for Doing Research with PeopleAnimal ResearchLearning Objectives:1.10, 1.11Lecture Launchers:1.20, 1.21Video: The Ethics of PsychologicalResearch with PeopleApplying Psychology to Everyday Life:Thinking Critically About Critical ThinkingLearning Objectives:1.12Lecture Launchers:1.22Video: Critical Thinking▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter13▼Lecture GuideI.THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGYLecture Launchers and Discussion Topics1.1-How Do We Know What We Know?1.2-Psychology and Common Sense1.3-African Americansin the History ofPsychology in America1.4-Women in the History of Psychology in America1.5-Biographical Profiles1.6-Scandal in Psychology—JohnB.Watson’sFall fromGrace1.7-The Study of Bumps on the Head1.8-Wundt’s Other Method1.9-Dates in the Development of PsychoanalysisClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises1.1-Misconceptions About Psychology1.2-Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking1.3-Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect1.4-A Jigsaw Approach to Learning the Early History of Psychology1.5-Which Famous Psychologist Am I?REVEL MultimediaMyPsychLab MultimediaLearning Objective 1.1-Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology.A. Thehistoryof psychology1. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processesa. A “hub science” in many meaningful waysB. In the beginning: Wundt,Titchener, and James1. In 1879, psychology began as a science of its own in Germanya.Wundt developed the method of objective introspection2. Titchener and structuralism inAmericaa. Edward Titchener brought psychology in the form of structuralism to Americab.Margaret F. Washburn was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychologyin 18943. WilliamJames andfunctionalisma.Stressestheway the mind allows us to adapti. Mary Whiton Calkinsii. Several women and minorities contributed to the early days of psychologyb. Functionalism influenced educational, evolutionary, and industrialpsychologyLearning Objective 1.2-Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the earlyapproaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.C.Three influential approaches1.Gestalt psychology: The whole is greater than the sum of its partsa. Wertheimer and others studied sensation and perceptionb. Called their new perspective Gestalt (organized whole) psychology2. SigmundFreud’s theory of psychoanalysisa. The unconscious mind controls much of our conscious behaviorb. Childhood events are important in influencing later behaviorc. Adler, Jung, Horney, and Anna Freud were adherents to one degree or another3. Pavlov, Watson, and the dawn ofbehaviorisma. Watson proposed a scienceof behavior called behaviorism, which focused only onthe study of observable stimuli and responses

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter14b. Watson and Rayner demonstrated that a phobia could be learned by conditioningc. Jones later demonstrated that learned phobias could be counterconditioned▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsII. THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY TODAYLecture Launchers and Discussion Topics1.10-Psychologyin the Framework ofEmerging Transdisciplinary Science1.11-Over the Edge1.12–Clinical, Psychiatric, and Other Types of Psychological TrainingClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises1.6-Perspectives in Psychology1.7-What Psychologists Know1.8-Thinking About Your Interests in PsychologyREVEL MultimediaMyPsychLab MultimediaLearningObjective 1.3-Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives inpsychology.A. Modern perspectives1. Psychodynamic perspectivea. Change of emphasis from Freud’s original ideas2. Behavioral perspectivea. Operant conditioning became a major force in the twentieth centuryb. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism3. Humanistic perspectivea. Free will and the human potential for growth are emphasizedb. Developed as a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis4. Cognitive perspectivea. Study of learning, memory, language, and problem solvingb. Includes the field of cognitive neuroscience5. Sociocultural perspectivea. Combines two areas of study: social psychology and cultural psychology6. Biopsychological perspectivea.Biological bases of behavior, such as hormones, heredity,neurotransmitters7. Evolutionary perspectivea. Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or survival valueb. Applications to mating andreproduction are a primary focusLearning Objective 1.4-Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field ofpsychology.B. Psychological professionals and areas of specialization1. Psychologists have academic degrees andcancounsel, teach,orresearch2. Psychologists may specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology3. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who provide diagnosis and therapy4. Psychiatric social workers have special training in theinfluences of the environment onmental illnessC. Psychologists engage in research, teaching, and application1. Basic research: Adding information to scientific knowledge

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter152. Applied research: Practical solutions to actual problems3. Psychologists investigate a broad range of topicsa. Social, personality, cognitive, health, sport, industrial, clinical, developmental, etc.▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsIII.SCIENTIFICRESEARCHLecture Launchers and Discussion Topics1.13-CaseStudies of VietnamWarExperiences1.14-Online Polls1.15-Correlation and Causality1.16-Damned Lies, Damned Statisticians1.17-Basic Research versus Applied Research1.18-Size Matters1.19-The (Tobacco) Road from Hypothesis to ConclusionClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises1.9-Inference or Observation?1.10-ContradictoryBeliefs1.11-Name That Research Method1.12-Making Statistics Relevant1.13-Observational Research in the Dining Hall1.14-Understanding Correlations1.15-Correlating Shoe Size and Height1.16-Wonder Horse Dials 911 To Save Boy’s Life1.17-Softens Hands While You Do Dishes1.18-Testing Random AssignmentREVEL MultimediaMyPsychLab MultimediaLearning Objective 1.5-Recall the five steps of the scientific approach.A. The scientific approach1. Psychology’s goalsa. Description: What is happening?b. Explanation: Why is it happening?c. Prediction: When will it happen again?d. Control: How can it be changed?2. Steps in the scientific approacha.Perceiving the questionb.Forming a hypothesisc.Testing the hypothesisd.Drawing conclusionse.Reporting the resultsi. Replication, falsifiability, transparency, reliability, etc., all applyLearning Objective 1.6-Compare and contrast some of the methods usedto describe behavior.B. Descriptive methods1. Naturalistic observation involves watching animals or people in naturalenvironmentsa. Advantages are realism and insights gained through participant observationb. Disadvantages area lack ofcontroland possible observer bias2. Laboratory observation involveswatching animals or people in an artificial butcontrolled situation, such as a laboratory

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter163. Case studies are detailed investigations of one subjecta. Information gained fromcase studies may not be applied to other cases4. Surveys involve asking standardized questions of large groups of peoplea. Respondents may not always tell the truth orremember information correctlyb. Representativeness and sampling issuesin general are a considerationLearning Objective 1.7-Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to studyrelationships between two or more variables.C. Correlations: Finding relationships1.Allows researchers to discover and predictrelationships between variablesa. Positive correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched byincreases in the other variableb. Negative correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched bydecreases in the other variable2. Correlations cannot be used to prove cause-and-effect relationshipsLearning Objective 1.8-Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment.D. The experiment1. Tightly controlled manipulations of variables that allow researchers to determinecause-and-effect relationshipsa. Independent and dependent variablesb. Control and experimental groupsc. Random assignmentd. Operational definitionsLearning Objective 1.9-Recall two common sources of problems in an experimentand someways to control for these effects.E. Experimental hazards and controlling for effects1. Placebo effects and experimenter effects2. Importance ofsingle-and double-blind designs▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsIV.ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCHLecture Launchers and Discussion Topics1.20-Using Animals in Psychological Research1.21-AnHistorical Perspective on Research EthicsREVEL MultimediaMyPsychLab MultimediaLearning Objective 1.10-Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research withpeople.A. Guidelines for conducting research with people1. Protection of rights and well-being of participants2. Informed consent3. Justification when deception is used4. The right of participants to withdraw at any time

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter175. Protection of participants fromrisks6. Debriefing of participants at the conclusion of the study7. Confidentiality8. Remediation of ill effectsLearning Objective 1.11-Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research.B. Animals in psychological research make useful models because they are easier to controlthan humans, have simpler behavior, and can be studied in ways that are not permissiblewith humans▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsV.APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE:THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT CRITICAL THINKINGLecture Launchers and Discussion Topics1.22-The Characteristics of Good ReasonersREVEL MultimediaMyPsychLab MultimediaLearning Objective 1.12-Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in theireveryday lives.A. Criteria for critical thinking1. Critical thinking is the ability to make reasoned judgments2. Four basic criteria:a. There are few concepts that do not need to be testedb. Evidence can vary in qualityc. Claims by experts and authorities do not automatically make something trued. Keepingan open mind is important▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsVI.CHAPTER SUMMARYClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises1.19-Crossword Puzzle1.20-Fill-in-the-Blanks▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter18▼LEARNING OBJECTIVES1.1Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology.1.2Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known asGestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism.1.3Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology.1.4Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of psychology.1.5Recall the five steps of the scientific approach.1.6Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior.1.7Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between twoor more variables.1.8Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment.1.9Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and some ways to control forthese effects.1.10Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people.1.11Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research.1.12Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives.▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter19▼RAPID REVIEWPsychologyis the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Wilhelm Wundt establishedthe first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879, using the method ofobjective introspectionin anattempt to study human thought processes. Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt, expandedWundt’s ideas and brought the method of introspection to the United States, calling his approachstructuralism. William James was focused on discovering how our mentalprocesses help us tofunction in our daily lives and began to promote his viewpoint known asfunctionalism.Gestaltpsychologistswere studying how sensation and perception create a pattern that is greater thanthe sum of the individual components. Sigmund Freud developed his theory ofpsychoanalysis,assigning a primary role to the unconscious. John Watson expanded the findings of Russianphysiologist Ivan Pavlov to promote the perspective ofbehaviorism. Today seven majorperspectives make up the field of psychology:psychodynamic,behavioral,humanistic,biopsychological,cognitive,sociocultural, andevolutionary. The field of psychology offers arange of professional opportunities, many based on direct practice. For example,psychiatrists,psychoanalysts, andpsychiatric social workersprovide varying forms of mental health care withvarying specializations and training.Psychologistsmight also perform clinical work, but canspecialize in many other areas and work in many different settings.Psychologists, like all scientists, use thescientific method. The goals of psychology are todescribe, explain, predict, and control the behaviors and mental process of both humans andanimals. Specific research techniques includenaturalistic observation,participant observation,case studies,surveys, and strategies that take acorrelationalapproach. In anexperiment, theresearcher manipulates anindependent variableand measures some response from theparticipants on thedependent variable. In order to accomplish this, the researcher usuallyobserves two groups: anexperimental groupand acontrol group. The researcher will mostlikely userandom assignmentto determine which participants will go into which group. Often, thecontrol group receives a bogus treatment in order to control for theplacebo effect. Normally, theparticipants are not told which group they are in (single-blind study). In order to control for anyexpectations the experimenter might have (theexperimenter effect),the study might be designedso that neither the participants nor the experimenter know who is in which group (double-blindstudy). Relying on the scientific method can help foster a more general attitude ofcriticalthinking.▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter110▼CHANGES FROMTHETHIRDEDITION TO THEFOURTHEDITIONChapter 1-The Science of PsychologyTopicshave been reorganizedandLearningObjectiveshave beenupdatedThe chapternow begins withHistory of PsychologyThediscussion ofGoals of Psychologyhas been movedto later in the chapterTheIssues in Psychologyfeaturehas been deletedSection headingshave been rewordedtoa more compact formVideos, photos, figures, and tableshave been updatedAPALearningObjective2 feature(A Sample Experiment) has been addedA new video on critical thinking accompaniestheApplying PsychologyfeatureNew researchhas beenincorporated on psychology as a “hub science”Coverage of some early minority pioneers in psychologyhas been movedinto the narrative, andmaterial on APA’s Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs websitehas been addedA new example of the sociocultural perspective(examining the bystander effect in India) has beenincorporatedInformationonthebiopsychological perspective and schizophreniahas been updatedResearchin theevolutionary psychology sectionhas been updatedMaterialon work settings and subfields of psychologyhas been updatedA revision ofterminology to focus on the “scientific approach” (vs. scientific method) and“operationalization” (vs. operational definition)has been incorporated, and thekey term “theory”hasbeen addedAn expanded discussion of forming a hypothesis(to include more information on how hypothesesrelate to theories) ispresentA discussion ofthe“replicability crisis”has been addedMaterial on the challenges involved in finding a representative sample for a studyis presented▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter111▼LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS1.1-How Do We Know What We Know?1.2-Psychology and Common Sense1.3-African Americansin the History ofPsychology in America1.4-Women in the History of Psychology in America1.5-Biographical Profiles1.6-Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’sFall fromGrace1.7-The Study of Bumps on the Head1.8-Wundt’s Other Method1.9-Dates in the Development of Psychoanalysis1.10-Psychology in the Framework of Emerging Transdisciplinary Science1.11-Over the Edge1.12-Clinical,Psychiatric, and Other Types of PsychologicalTraining1.13-Case Studies of Vietnam WarExperiences1.14-Online Polls1.15-Correlation and Causality1.16-Damned Lies, Damned Statisticians1.17-Basic Research versus AppliedResearch1.18-Size Matters1.19-The (Tobacco) Road From Hypothesis to Conclusion1.20-Using Animals in Psychological Research1.21-An Historical Perspective on Research Ethics1.22-The Characteristics of Good Reasoners▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.1-How Do We Know What We Know?Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquireknowledge.There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for whichother means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate.Begin your discussion by asking students thefollowing questions:How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States?How do you know that you really have a stomach?What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow?How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing?How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the thingscomputers do?Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt?Authorityis one source of knowledge.We know, or believe, that Washington was the first president becausewe trust the authority of historians and history books.During the centuries that Western civilization wasdominated by the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way ofknowing.Reasonwas considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge.If you say,“All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning.If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone canremember,” you are using inductive reasoning.

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter112Observationis yet another way of acquiring knowledge.You know the color of my shirt because you can seethe shirt.You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have notobserved stares and giggles from others.One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers.Peopleyou perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may havereasoned that creatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors.Or you mayhave looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems.But there isno way one can absolutely refute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computerrunning, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat.All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation mustbe the basis for knowledge that is scientific.Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by thesenses than on authority of others or reasoning.In short, science relies on empirical evidence.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.2-Psychology and Common SenseA common refrain voiced by laypeople and some scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioral science “isjust common sense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given thatmuch of their prior exposure to psychology islikely to have been very commonsensical (though perhaps notwellestablished) claims by a variety of “professionals” on the talk-show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult tocounter the “commonsense” stigma when so much of behavior seems to be explainable at an intuitivesurface level.Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subjectmatter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than is the subject matter of subatomic physics orgastroendocrinological biology; we see behavior all around us but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychologywould be an odd science of thought and behavior if it only considered thoughts and behaviors completelyforeign to people’s experiences or if its findings always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neithergreater visibility of subject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many peoplebelieved wholeheartedly in flat Earths and cheese moons, only to find their commonsense views dismantledin the face of scientific evidence. So too with psychology. Although most people would like to believe thatlarge rewards produce greater liking for a boring task, that the behavior of men and women is determined bytheir biology, or that absence makes the heart grow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex-role stereotypes, and close relationships would be happy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, thepopularity of a commonsense belief may not always support the weight of scientific evidence.More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behavior,rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description—“why” versus “what”—echoes the difference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps describewhattakes place in behavior but doesn’t compel us to understandwhyit takes place. The development of theoryin understanding behavior sets science apart from everyday commonsense accounts.Leary, M. (2016).Behavioral research methods(7thed.).Hoboken, NJ: Pearson.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.3–African Americans in the Historyof Psychology in America

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter113Like women, African Americans faced many obstacles to their education and participation in psychology.Most white institutions would not accept African American students, and when they were able to enroll, theyoften experienceddiscrimination. In addition, few undergraduate black colleges offered a major inpsychology until after the 1940s. Howard University, the only major black university offering graduate study,awarded 32 PhDs to African Americans from 1920 to 1950. During the same period only eight AfricanAmericans earned a PhD from one of the ten most prestigious white universities. Not only was earning thePhD difficult, employment opportunities were scarce for African American psychologists since neither whiteuniversities nor organizations in the private sector would hire them. Most taught at black colleges whereopportunities to engage in research were limited, thus restricting opportunities for professional recognition.The situation for African American students has improved dramatically in recent years. Kenneth B. Clark,best known for his research on the effects of racial segregation, became the first African American electedas APA president in 1970.Guthrie, R. V. (1976).Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology. New York: Harper and Row.Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2016).A history of modern psychology(11thed.). Boston: Cengage.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.4-Women in the History of Psychology in AmericaPsychology has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behavior. Part of that diversity includescelebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with yourstudents the stories of some key figures from psychology’s history:Mary Whiton Calkins(1863–1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, butbecause Harvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a PhD fromHarvard. At best, Harvard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating thatshe ought to be given the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with EdmundSanford from neighboring Clark University on a variety of research projects. At that time, women withadvanced degrees or training primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley andVassar Colleges. Calkins received a position at Wellesley College in 1887 and established a prolificlaboratory in 1891 producing short-term memory research (Madigan & O'Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins wasthe first woman elected president of the APA.Margaret Floy Washburn(1871–1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a PhD from EdwardB. Titchener in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin,1999). She was also the first female to receive a PhD in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn neverbelieved Titchener taught her much, as she became aleading comparative psychologist at Vassar College.She produced her most influential work inThe Animal Mindin 1908, and in 1921, she was elected thesecond woman president of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937 and died from itscomplications in 1939 (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987).Christine Ladd-Franklin(1847–1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perceptionand made great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professorfrom Columbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid.Like Calkins, she did not receive her PhD, although she had completed all of the required work. JohnsHopkins University finally granted her the degree shortly before her death. She accepted the degree inperson.At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in menthan in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women would never be as brightor even “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologistLeta Stetter Hollingworth(1886–1939) challenged these beliefs with her research,which showed no evidence that the distribution of

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter114intelligence test scores differed between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged thepopular belief that women’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding nostatistical evidence to support such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth’s contributions are often seen asthe seedlings for the formal study of the psychology of women.African American psychologistMamie Phipps Clark(1917–1983) received her bachelor’s and master’sdegrees from Howard University and her PhD from Columbia University in 1944. She is well known for herstudies of racial differences in racial identity and self-concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950sracial segregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of segregationon African American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and whitechildren were shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most lookedlike, establishing a measure of racial identity. Then, children were asked which doll they would most like toplay with. Both whiteandAfrican American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races ofchildren a preference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was considered and noted in theSupreme Court’s 1954 ruling inBrown v. Board of Educationdesegregation case, which ruled that publicschool segregation was unconstitutional.Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification andpreference in Negro children.Journal of NegroEducation, 19,341–350.Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist.American Psychologist, 47,175–182.Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in thehistory of psychology: The first American women psychologists. InJ. S. Bohan (Ed.)Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard(pp. 337-353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Goodwin, C. J. (1999).A history of modern psychology.New York: Wiley.Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement.American Journal of Sociology, 19,510-530.Madigan, S., & O'Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century.American Psychologist, 47,107–174.Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987).Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists.New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press.Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children.Journal ofEducational Psychology, 84,20–27.Sokal, M. (2016). Elizabeth Scarborough (1935-2015).American Psychologist, 71(3), 246.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.5–Brief Biographical Profiles of Major Contributors to PsychologyIn the television show,Dragnet,Sergeant Joe Friday famously intoned, “Just the facts, ma’am.” If you’d liketo share some fast facts about some pioneers in psychology, the snippets below may be of interest to you.Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite comingfrom a family that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a goodstudent. After he dropped outof one high school, a teacher suggested that areasonable goal for Wundtwould be a career in the postal service. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 hegraduated at the top of his class in medical school. Wundt then went to Berlinto study physiology withJohannes Müller, and he subsequently decided to become an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt thenreturned to the University of Heidelberg, where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It wasat Heidelbergin 1862that Wundt taught his first course in psychology.In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute forExperimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of thehuman mind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology ever. It is estimated thatbetween the years of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voraciouswriter; he was also responsible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as EdwardTitchener, brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America.

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter115Edward Titchener (1867–1927)Edward Titchener, an Englishman and a student of Wilhelm Wundt, taught at Cornell University during thelate 19thand early 20thcenturies. Titchener is best known as the major proponent of structuralism, whichfocused on investigating the structure of conscious experience.Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia,in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it tookhim eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested inso many topics. Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into generalmedical practice. In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. Thisis unusual, because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversiondisorder. Through trialand error and feedback from his clients, Breuer and Freud developed the techniqueknown as psychoanalysis. Its fundamental rule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelingsuncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thoughtwherever it may lead, a process knownas free association. In the course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past and,upon reliving these events, often experience relief from their symptoms. Freud’s first major work,TheInterpretation of Dreams(1900), detailed the process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the “royalroad to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed, this work wasreprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime.Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’smost important legacy, he made many other substantial contributions to psychology. These include therecognition of the importance of sexuality and unconscious processes, a fully developed systemofpersonality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society.William James (1842–1910)William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City but spentmuch of hischildhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several privateschools. James’s interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at homein an enriched environment shared with his brother Henry James, the famous author. William Jamesstruggled to find a vocation that suited his various interests, trying his hand at art,chemistry, and finally,medicine. He received his MD from Harvard in 1868.In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvard but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interestin such philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporarydabbler in the discipline of psychology, his two-volume textbook,Principles of Psychology(1890),stood asthe field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century. It is still considered one of the best-writtentexts on psychology and a source of many original ideas. James’s contributions to psychology include thenotion of a stream ofconsciousness, the importance of habit and instinct, and a complex theory of the self,theory of emotion, and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs.John Broadus Watson (1878–1958)Watson is best known for his insistence that as a true science, psychology’s research methods must beobjective and its subject matter observable. Often called “the founder of behaviorism,” Watson is one of themost dynamic, if enigmatic, figures in the history of American psychology.Born in 1878 in Greenville, SouthCarolina, Watson had a fairly unremarkable childhood, displaying neither the drive nor the vivid imaginationthat characterized him in his adult life. His enthusiasm for research and academic accomplishment firstdevelopedwhen he became involved in research work at the University of Chicago. Throughout his career atthe university, he studied physiology of behavior in laboratory animals, and the patterns he observed laterbecame the basis for his behavioristic theories.In 1908, he left the University of Chicago to join the faculty at Johns Hopkins University where he entered thelimelight of academia with the publication of an article in which he clearly stated the behaviorist point of view.A manifesto of sorts, the paper argued that psychology must become an objective science, an experimentalbranch of the natural sciences whose goal would be to predict and control behavior. Watson wasdisenchanted with the introspective methods characterizing psychology at the time andadvocated a purelyobjective and experimental means of studying behavior.

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter116In 1914, Watson published a very important book,Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, inwhich he advocated the study of animal behavior without resorting to “mentalistic concepts.” This was theimpetus behind the widespread study of rats and other animals for the purpose of developing behaviormodels in American psychology.Watson’s ideas leapt to prominence in a few short years. Because his redefinition of the discipline ofpsychology seemed to presage the course that modern psychology would take, he was elected president ofthe APA in 1915. In his presidential address, he linked Pavlovian theories of conditioning to his ownbehaviorist concepts.The indefatigableWatson, meanwhile, had launched experiments in which he applied behavioristic conceptsto child rearing. The “Little Albert” experiment, in which he conditioned fear in an infant, is probably his mostfamous work. His book,Psychological Care of the Infantand Child, was the product of his research, and itsenthusiastic reception made him a sought-after expert on child care.The whole range of human behavior fascinated Watson, and as early as 1917, he had begun studies intohuman sexual response. He observed sexual behavior in laboratory animals but wanted to explore the morecomplex changes that occurred in humans. The tenor of the times required the utmost discretion in pursuingthis avenue of research. Watson used himself as a subject in his sexual response research. He secretlymonitored his female laboratory assistant and himself during their sexual intercourse. When Watson’s wifediscovered the content of his experiments, she sued for divorce and had all of his records confiscated anddestroyed. A major scandal resulted; Watson was dismissed from Johns Hopkins and married his researchassistant. Unable to find an academic institution that would allow him a position on its faculty, he finallyturned to private industry for employment in 1921.During theyears that followed, he applied the principles of behaviorism to public relations and advertisingtechniques. He collected demographic data as a basis for marketing campaigns and instituted the use ofsubliminal suggestion and hidden symbolism in advertisements. His expertise and enthusiasm for researchin this new field made him a successful executive in one of the nation’s largest advertising firms.Although Watson continued to publish papers in scientific journals, he never again gained recognition fromthe scientific community. He died embittered at the age of 80.B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania and received a bachelor'sdegree in English from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enrolled in the experimental psychologyprogram at Harvard and studied under E.G. Boring, earning his master’s degree in 1930 and PhD in 1931. In1936, he began his academic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position aschairmanof the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him aposition, which he accepted, and he remained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990.While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson. From thisinfluence, Skinner dedicated his life's work to studying the relationship between reinforcement andobservable behavior. Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically drivendiscipline. He is considered by many to be one of the most important figures in20th-century psychology, andhis contribution to both clinical and experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists whofollowed his lead, and to this day, extendhis work in associative learning research. The principles ofreinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinical psychologists and applied to the conceptualizationand treatment of mental disorders. The application of behaviorism to clinical psychology was not short lived,as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and childconduct problems are based upon behavioral principles.Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941)Max Wertheimerand Kurt Koffka were early Gestalt psychologists who argued that psychological experiencecannot be reduced to its basic elements. Rather, they asserted that behavior and thought as a whole mustbe studied in order to understand psychological experience.

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter117Wertheimer was born in Prague, Austria-Hungary in 1880. His father directed a private business college andhis mother was an accomplished amateur violinist. Wertheimer studied law, philosophy, and psychology atCharles University in Prague. He later studied philosophy and psychology at the University of Berlin underCarl Stumpf, and then moved to the University of Surzburg in 1904, obtaining his PhD under Oswald Kulpe.Wertheimer first discovered the phenomenon of apparent motion during a train trip, and later conductedstudies on the phi illusion at Frankfurt, where Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka, his cofounders of the Gestaltschool, participated as his research subjects. In 1933, Wertheimer fled Germany due to Hitler’s rise topower, coming to the UnitedStates. He taught at the New School for Social Research in New York City untilhis death in 1943.Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)Maslow was a humanistic psychologist best known for his development of a hierarchy of needs that must befulfilled in order foran individual to reach self-actualization—the ability to realize one’s unique potential as ahuman being.Maslow received his PhD at the University of Wisconsin in 1934 under Harry Harlow. He then taught atWisconsin for a year, followed by appointments at Teachers College of Columbia University, BrooklynCollege, and finally, Brandeis University, where he spent most of his academic career. He moved to MenloPark, California in 1969 as a resident fellow of the Laughlin Foundation.Maslow is considered oneof the foremost proponents of humanistic psychology and was the founder of theJournal of Humanistic Psychology. He is particularly known for his theory of motivation and the concept of ahierarchy of needs, ranging from basic survival needs to the need for self-actualization. His influentialwritings includeToward a Psychology of Being(1962) andReligion, Values and Peak Experiences(1964).He served in 1968 as president of the APA.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.6–Scandal in Psychology: John B. Watson’s Fall from GraceJohn B. Watson was a very famouspersonin his day,something studentsmight notrealize, as he usuallygets only a few short paragraphs in introductory psychology textbooks. In fact, at the end of his career inpsychology he was an esteemed professor at the world-renowned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,Maryland. At one time he was recognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr.Brazelton would later become. He was married, a father, and respected in his field.All of that ended whenhe was fired over his affair with a graduate student, Rosalie Rayner. Mary Watson,his wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neither Watson nor Rayner wanted theaffair to end (in fact they married in 1921 while his divorce from Mary Watson was still pending), and finallyJohns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequent divorce from Mary was front page news at the time.Watson, however, began a second successful career in advertising, working for the J. Walter Thompsonagencyandeventually becoming a vicepresident.Ironically, his ad campaigns for Maxwell House coffee andPonds cold cream probably influenced many more people (at the time) than did his academic writing.It’salso plain that he made much more money as anad executive than he ever did as a professor!A happyending?Perhaps not.Rosalie Rayner died in 1935, aged only 35 years, and Watson lived alone on theirfarm until his own death in 1958.By that point he had become embittered and reclusive, and had burned hisvast collection of letters and personal papers, effectively putting an end to an important chapter in thehistrory of psychology.

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Ciccarelli and WhitePsychology: An Exploration4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter118Benjamin Jr, L. T., Whitaker, J. L., Ramsey, R. M., & Zeve, D. R. (2007). John B. Watson's alleged sex research: an appraisal ofthe evidence.American Psychologist,62(2), 131.Buckley, K. W. (1989).Mechanicalman: John Broadus Watson and thebeginnings ofbehaviorism.New York:Guilford Press.Duke, C., Fried, S., Pliley, W., & Walker, D. (1989). Contributions to thehistory of psychology: LIX. Rosalie Rayner Watson: Themother of a behaviorist’s sons.Psychological Reports,65(1), 163-169.Todd, J.T., & Morris, E.K. (1994). Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. New York: GreenwoodPress.►Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture Launcher 1.7-The Study of Bumps on the HeadFranz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) was a skilled brain anatomist whose descriptions of the brain's gray andwhite matter, cerebral commissures, and contralateral innervation remain an important part of the knowledgebase of neurology and psychology.Also, Gallwas among the first to discuss the relationship between brainand behavior.Unlike the dualism of Descartes, Gall's view asserted that the mind was located in the brain.His studies of the brains of animals and of people of various ages and types indicatedthat cognitive abilitiesare based on the amount and placement of healthy cortical tissue, and that greater amounts of cortical tissueare usually associated with superior functioning.This field was namedphrenology.An additional importantaspect of Gall's view was that personality characteristics and abilities are determined by independent,genetically determined, neurologically distinct structures (Fodor, 1983).Gall postulated 27 faculties, includingamativeness (sexual behavior), acquisitiveness, reverence, verbal memory, marvelousness, love of thepicturesque, defensiveness, and number.Gall's neuroanatomy research and "faculty" theory led to the notion of phrenology.Unfortunately, it isphrenology for which Gall is remembered best and as a result,ridiculed.His true accomplishments havebeen buried under the quackery of phrenology, even though it was his followers, rather than Gall himself,who were responsible for the worst sins of phrenology (Fodor, 1983).What’s more, Gall's theories are oftenmisrepresented or misunderstood by critics and modern historians.Phrenology, as developed by Gall and his followers (such as Spurzheim and Combe), asserted that 1) themind is located in the brain; 2) mental abilities are determined by innate faculties that are located in specificparts of the brain; 3) the size of the brain devoted to a faculty indicates the strength of that faculty; 4) theshape and external characteristics of the skull at particular locations reflect the brain beneath thoselocations;and 5) examination of the head/skull allows a description of the individual's personality andabilities (Kurtz, 1985).These ideas supposedly were stimulated by Gall's boyhood observation that severalof his classmates who were not generally more intelligent, but who were more scholastically successfulbecause of their superior memory abilities, all had large, bulging eyes (Fancher, 1979), and were furtheredby Gall's later anatomical research.Through the study of many individuals, Gall and his associatesmappedthe regions of the skull they believed corresponded to each of the 27 faculties.For example, Gall's boyhoodobservation led to the hypothesis that verbal memory ability is reflected in the region of the cortex lyingimmediately behind the eyes:Thebrain is overdeveloped at that location when ability is great, and causesthe eyes to protrude.Gall's interactions with a "Passionate Widow" revealed a large, hot neck, which heinterpreted as a sign that the cerebellum at the lower back of the brain wasthe seat of sexual behavior("amativeness") (Fancher, 1979, p. 48).Phrenology has been attacked on several points.First, the skull does not accurately reflect the underlyingbrain.Thus, even if the size of the brain at specific locations did indicatethe strength of the correspondingfaculty, the skull's topology would be worthless for determining this.Second, although certain abilities doseem to be localized in specific parts of the brain (e.g., speech production at Broca's area), the amount ofbrain tissue does not reflect the level of the ability.Also, the 27 faculties are poorly chosen and described.Many are ill-defined, and others are usually considered to be the result of the combination of several otherabilities, not independent faculties.Athird major problem was the rather unscientific methods of researchused to "confirm" the theory.Gall and his associates reportedly cited only cases that supported the theory,while ignoring or explaining away negative results (Fancher, 1979).Gall employed the concept of "balancing

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