Lecture Notes for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 8th Edition

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Instructor’s Resource Manualto accompanyChild and Adolescent Psychology8thEditionRita Wicks-Nelson and Allen C. IsraelAlan SwinkelsSt. Edward’s University

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ContentsChapter 1........Introduction.....................................................................................................1Chapter 2........The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective.........................................9Chapter 3........Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology......................16Chapter 4........Research: Its Role and Methods...................................................................26Chapter 5........Classification, Assessment, and Intervention...............................................34Chapter 6........Anxiety Disorders.........................................................................................43Chapter 7........Mood Disorders............................................................................................53Chapter 8........Conduct Problems.........................................................................................62Chapter 9........Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.....................................................71Chapter 10......Language and Learning Disabilities.............................................................79Chapter 11......Intellectual Disability....................................................................................86Chapter 12......Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia.............................................92Chapter 13......Disorders of Basic Physical Functions.......................................................101Chapter 14......Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions................................111Chapter 15......Evolving Concerns for Youth.....................................................................118

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1CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER SUMMARYChild and adolescentpsychological problems and disorders have interested mental health professionalsfor some time; however, it is only in recent years that this interest has reached a larger audience. What isabnormal child or adolescent behavior? How do we distinguish between normal or abnormal behavior?How can we be certain that a behavior is not part of normal development?There are as many variations in children’s behavior as there are names for the behavior. Regardless of thelabel, there is no simple or exact way to define disordered behavior. All groups have norms for what isconsidered appropriate behavior, and those norms can sometimes differ across cultural groups or variousethnicities. Whether implicit or explicit, the norms tell us how to behave and help us distinguish the fineline between normal and abnormal. Behavior is considered abnormal if a child or adolescent consistentlyviolatessomeoftheserulesandthebehaviorinterfereswitheverydayfunctioningandbasicdevelopmental tasks. Attitudes about what is normal vary over time and situations, or across the peopleobserving the behavior. (The definition of child and adolescent problem behavior is made by others—usually a parent or guardian, teacher, or family physician.) Not surprisingly, disagreements can existamong adults as to whether a child has a problem.The number of children and adolescents with a psychological disorder is staggering, and the challengesthey face are significant.An estimated 15-20 percent of all four-to eighteen-year-olds experiencepsychological disorders. Contrary to what many believe, many psychological disorders do not go awaywith time.Rather, a large proportion of youth will continue to face difficulties into adulthood. The painand suffering that children and adolescents experience extends to families, schools, communities, and thebroader society, as reflected in the costs of medical, psychological, and educational services for childrenand their families. It also has been suggested that changing social conditions may increase the risk ofdisorders.Among children and adolescents, disordered behavior must be considered within a developmentalframework. What may be acceptable behavior at one developmental stage can become problem behaviorat a later stage of development.Certain behaviors (such as autism) appear during the early years ofdevelopment, whereas other conditions (such as schizophrenia) develop during the teenage years. Genderdifferences are found in the rates and expression of different psychological disorders, with boys generallyexhibiting higher rates than girls. Methodological issues, such as biased clinical samples, and differencesin expression of the disorder may account in part for some of the reported results.Historically, interest in psychopathology focused primarily on adults. The foundations for classifying andunderstanding problem behaviors among children were established from several sources, such as effortsby Kraepelin to identify and classify mental illness, the introduction of psychoanalytic theory, techniquesof behaviorism and social learning, and the influence of the mental hygiene movement.The current study and practice of child and adolescent psychopathology emphasizes a multidisciplinaryperspective and scientifically rigorous approach. Children are seen as having an active role in theirenvironment,andbehaviorresultsfromaseriesoftransactionsinvolvingtiming,situation,andcharacteristics of the individual. More than one professional is often involved in clinical activities with ayoung person.Professional contact with youth typically involves some communication with families,

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2usually with one or more parents. The importance of the family is apparent in cases in which treatment isdiscontinued prior to successful completion. The comparative immaturity, inexperience, and vulnerabilityof children and adolescents require special considerations. Efforts by mental health professionals towardestablishing a therapeutic alliance with clients may increase the chance of a successful outcome.CONTENT OUTLINEINTRODUCTIONDEFINING AND IDENTIFYING ABNORMALITYAtypical and Harmful BehaviorDevelopmental StandardsCulture and EthnicityOther Standards: Gender and SituationsThe Role of OthersChanging Views of AbnormalityHOW COMMON ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS?HOW ARE DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL AND DISORDER RELATED?HOW ARE GENDER AND DISORDER RELATED?Methodological Issues, True DifferencesHISTORICAL INFLUENCESProgress in the 19th CenturySigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic TheoryBehaviorism and Social Learning TheoryMental Hygiene and Child Guidance MovementsScientific Study of YouthCURRENT STUDY AND PRACTICEWorking with Youth and Their FamiliesInterdisciplinary EffortsThe Role of ParentsWorking with Young ClientsOVERVIEWKEY TERMS

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3LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:➢How psychological disorders are defined and identified➢The prevalence of psychological disorders➢The relationship between developmental level and psychological disorders➢The relationship between gender and psychological disorders➢Historical influences on understanding psychological disorders➢The current study and practice of abnormal child and adolescent psychologyKEY TERMSdevelopmental norms (p. 3)culture, cultural norms (p. 3)ethnicity (p. 4)race (p. 4)gender norms (p. 5)situational norms (p. 5)secular trends (p. 6)demonology (p. 10)somatogenesis (p. 10)syndromes (p. 11)psychoanalytic theory (p. 11)psychogenesis (p. 11)behaviorism (p. 13)social learning perspective (p. 14)cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 14)mental hygiene movement (p. 14)child guidance movement (p. 14)therapeutic alliance (p. 17)informed consent (p. 17)

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4LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS1.Sociologist W.I. Thomas is known for his classic “definition of the situation.”In Thomas’s words,“If a person defines a situation as real, it will be real in its consequences for that individual.”Thisconcept is an excellent stepping-off place for a general discussion of the distinction betweennormality and abnormality, at least from a sociological point of view.Deviant behavior may beviewed from an absolute perspective (“Thou shalt not kill”), or from a relative perspective (“Inwartime, killing is socially sanctioned under certain circumstances”).Discuss this absolute/relativedistinction with the members of your class.Encourage them to offer other illustrations of Thomas’snotion of the definition of the situation and how it impacts perceptions of normality.2.The article cited below is an excellent way to get students involved in class discussion early in thesemester. It should also prompt students to think about the responsibilities of parents and caretakerswho work with children who may have psychological disorders,the importance of getting good helpas well as accurate diagnosis,the importance of awareness of mental disorders,and removing anyshame or stigma from a diagnosis of disorder. Ask students to read the article below or paste thisexcerpt into a PowerPoint slide. Discuss the issue in class with responses from both sides.Legal Responsibility and Schizophrenia: A credible defense?In May of 1998, Kip Kinkel, age 15, shot and killed his parents, and the next day went to schooland opened fire on fellow students (killing two and injuring twenty-five). Kip, diagnosed withparanoid schizophrenia, said he heard voices directing him to shoot his parents.After he killedhis mother, the voices said, “Go to school and kill everybody. Look what you’ve already done.”The examining psychiatrist stated that he did not believe that there was any way to cure Kip’sdisorder, but that it could be managed with medication: “I would not want to see Kip Kinkel outon the streets, ever, with this condition . . . without medicine and without an awful lot ofstructure and support services arranged for him.”(From PBSFrontlineathttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/).3.Cultural, ethnic, and gender disparities in mental health provide a wealth of material for lecturetopics. Although rates may vary, mental disorders do not discriminate; they affect all classes, racialand ethnic groups, and genders.However, there are many differences across social groups in theunderstanding, acceptance, availability of services, and treatment of mental health. How might thesedisparities affect the way people from different cultures, age ranges, classes, or genders viewabnormal behavior?4.Invite a guest speaker with expertise on any of the following topics to share her or his knowledgewith your students:a.The Psychologist—Ask a psychologist from your university Counseling Center or someone inprivate practicetodiscuss her or his professional activities with your students. Ask your guest toaddress such areas as training, clients’ problems, referrals, methods used, and success rates.b.The Hospital—Invite an administrator or public relations person from an acute care hospital todiscuss her or his facility and its therapeutic services.Ask the person to include such points aspatientcharacteristics,majortypesofdisorders,treatments,specialprograms,admissions

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5procedures and reasons for admission, release procedures, follow-up programs, and successes inthe neuropsychiatric program.c.TheCommunityProgram—Askarepresentativefromacommunityprogram(cityorneighborhood) to come to class and describe the program to your students. This person couldrepresent a community mental health or mental retardation program, a work program for peoplewith mental retardation, an alcohol abuse program, or a group home.STUDENT ACTIVITIES1.Careers in mental health. Your students are probably interested in working with children at somepoint, and many of them might plan a career in the field. It is often difficult to differentiate the rolesof the many mental health professionals who work with children. Many choices exist, depending onone’s interests, training, and aptitude. Ask students to search the Internet for different career choices.Some examples of careers are clinical, educational, counseling, or school psychologist; educationaltherapist; psychiatric social worker; counselor; and psychiatric nurse. A good starting point is to findthe professional organization affiliated with the career (ex. psychologists--www.apa.org; familytherapist--American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy--www.aamft.org).2.Stigma. Even with cultural changes and diagnostic progress, stigma continues to plague the field ofmental health. A majority of disorders are underreported due to fear or embarrassment. Often parentsor guardians feel they will be viewed as “bad parents” or have “poor parenting skills” if their child isdiagnosed with a problem. Some even blame themselves for the onset of mental illness. In 1999 theWhite House Conference on Mental Health called for a national anti-stigma campaign. Ask studentsto read this summary (cited below) or find articles on current attitudes toward psychologicaldisorders, especially among children and adolescents.Do they think the campaign was successful?Why or why not? If not, what specific ideas might they suggest (such as a media campaign) to changepeople’s opinions? What populations would they target?http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/generalspeeches/1999/19990607.html3.What is normal?Presenting students with an actual case can be an excellent way to begin a classperiod and quickly get your students involved in the day’s topic. Divide students into groups of fiveto six. Have them read the case of Rachel (or, if you prefer, one of your own cases) and answer thequestions that follow.RACHELRachel is a 14-year-old with no prior history of psychological problems.She is dressed inshorts, a sleeveless tee and combat boots. She was brought in by her mother with complaints of“feeling bad.”She is irritable, sleeps poorly, eats little, and has lost 10 lbs. in the last fewmonths.She appears disinterested in many of the activities she previously enjoyed, such asshopping with her mother.Instead, she lies around the house, communicates little with herfamily, and appears to have little energy or self-direction.What are your concerns, if any?Which of Rachel’s behaviors seem normal? Explain.What is contributing to Rachel’s overall pattern of behavior?What additional information would you like to have? Why?

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64.As noted in the text, cultural and gender-based norms are important contributors to people’sperceptions of the normality or abnormality of behavior. Encourage your students to think of ways inwhich cultural norms contribute to these perceptions. For example, there are many subcultural groupswithin society that would not think drinking a pint of whiskey and a six-pack of beer in one evening isdeviant, particularly when all of their relatives, friends, and acquaintances are engaging in the samebehavior. Then, have the class think about how gender norms affect what is regarded as normal orabnormal. Prior to the 1970s, for example, promiscuity was taken for granted among males (“sowingwild oats”), but the same behavior among females sent a stigmatized message about “loose” womenwho “slept around.”SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGSBooksAmerican Psychiatric Association.(2004).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV-TR (Text Revision).American Psychiatric Association (4thed). Note that the DSM-V will eventuallybe published; more information can be found here:http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspxBeers, C. (1908).A mind that found itself: An autobiography. University of Pittsburgh Press.Beers, C. (1923).The mental hygiene movement. Doubleday.Freud, S. (1946).The psychoanalytic treatment of children.Imago.Freud, S. (1965).Abstracts of the standard edition of the complete psychological works of SigmundFreud.International Universities Press.House, A. E. (2002).DSM-IV diagnosis in the schools.NewYork,NY:GuilfordPress.Karp, David A. (2001).The burden of sympathy: How families cope with mental illness. OxfordUniversity Press.Rutter, M. & Smith, D.J. (1995).Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes.New York: Wiley.Research ArticlesAdkins, D. E.;Daw, J. K.;McClay, J. L.;&vandenOord,EdwinJ.C.G.(2012).Theinfluenceoffivemonoaminegenesontrajectoriesofdepressivesymptomsacrossadolescenceandyoungadulthood.DevelopmentandPsychopathology,Specialissue:ADevelopmentalPsychopathologyPerspectiveonEmotionalAvailabilityResearch,24(1),267-285.Rollock, D., & Gordon, E. W. (2000).Racismandmentalhealthintothe21stcentury:Perspectivesandparameters.AmericanJournalofOrthopsychiatry,70(1),5-13.Rutter, M.,& Sroufe, A. (1999). Development and psychopathology: Concepts and challenges.Development and Psychopathology,12, 265-296.Stewart, S. M.;Simmons, A.;& Habibpour, E. (2012).Treatmentofculturallydiversechildrenandadolescentswithdepression.JournalofChildandAdolescentPsychopharmacology,22(1),72-79.

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7Media ResourcesFitting In or Standing Out? Conformity in Childhood(2007)Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).As children begin school and other new experiences, what happens to the values, behavior, andexpectations they have learned at home? Why do so many young people follow the crowd? And whendoes conformity become a bad thing? This program explores those questions, visiting a group of 25seven-year-olds who are learning to cope with peer groups and situations.Inside the Teenage Brain(2001)Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).There are many mysteries in life: What happens after we die? If a tree falls in the forest and no one isaround, does it make a sound? Why do teenagers act in the inexplicable ways they do? This filmtackles that last question and might set the stage for many of the discussions you’ll have throughoutthe semester.When the Bough Breaks(1995)Fifth Estate Series (72 min).A baby boy does not sleep through the night; a toddler stays up all night, too, and screams if herparents leave the house. Another little girl will not eat. Therapy sessionswiththe three youngchildrenare shown.Young Dr. Freud: 1. Struggling with the Demon(2002)PBS (57 min).ThisPBS documentary chronicles Freud’s life from his birth in 1856 and his concepts about identity,memory, childhood and sexuality, and psychoanalysis.Speaking Out: Video Interviews with People Who Struggle with Psychological DisordersVolume 3-DVD 1Mental Health and the LawInterview:Shannon-Intimate Violence and Self-Defense(run time: 13:43)Day-In-The-Life-Shannon(run time: 5:46)WEB LINKSAmerican Psychological Association:www.apa.orgAmerican Psychological Society:www.psychologicalscience.orgAmerican Psychiatric Association:www.psychiatry.org/Erik Erikson:www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htmInternet Mental Health:www.mentalhealth.comMental Help Net:www. mentalhelp.netNational Association of the Mentally Ill (NAMI):www.nami.orgNational Institutes of Mental Health:www.nimh.nih.gov

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8National Mental Health Association(NMHA):www.nmha.orgSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration:www.samhsa.govToday in the History of Psychology:www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html

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9CHAPTER 2THE DEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVECHAPTER SUMMARYParents, teachers, or other caregivers who are concerned by a child’s unusual or disturbing behavior oftenseek help to better understand the behavior and determine its cause. Researchers and clinicians, too, havestruggled with how a child’s behavior should be conceptualized and explained.Today, we recognize that to have more than a superficial understanding of a problem, it is necessary tohave a set of organizing principles or framework within which to place our observations. Most cliniciansbegin with a theoretical formulation to guide them, although there are numerous factors potentiallyinvolved in psychopathology.Currently, the developmental psychopathology perspective offers a rigorous and influential approach tothe study of behavioral disorders. This approach uses normal development to inform us about abnormalbehavior. It emphasizes the role of developmental processes, context, situation, and the influences ofmultiple and interacting events in shaping healthy or maladaptive development. Rather than imposing aspecific theoretical explanation, it offers a way of integrating various approaches or microparadigmswithin a developmental psychopathology framework.Even though children’s problems have a variety of causes, all have in common a failure to effectivelymaster or complete a developmental milestone. Sometimes asufficientcause will produce a disorder,butgenerally, it requires sufficient, necessary, and contributing forces in combination to produce theoutcome. Along the developmental pathway of the growing child, a temporal relationship exists betweenthe sequence and timing of particular behaviors. This relationship can be moderated by characteristics ofthe child or the environment. Age, gender, or sensitivity to the environment can have supportive ordetrimental influences on the child as illustrated by the principles of equifinality and multifinality.Equifinalitysuggests that diverse paths or factors can be associated with the same outcome. In otherwords, children can travel different pathways or have different experiences yet develop the samebehavioral problems.Multifinalitysuggests that, depending on other factors, children may have the samekind of experience yet end up with different problems or no difficulties at all. Factors such as risk,vulnerability, and resilience will also contribute to the appearance or absence of a disorder. Risk increasesthe chance of psychological difficulties or impairments. Developmental risk factors include constitutional,family, emotional, interpersonal, intellectual, and ecological elements,as well asunusual nonnormativestressful life events. In the presence of adverse conditions, some individuals will be resilient, whereasothers will respond with maladaptive patterns that leave them vulnerable to the onset of psychopathology.Despite being at risk for the disorder, resilience, or the ability to avoid negative outcomes, increases thelikelihood the child will not develop the disorder. Although resilience may include many factors, they canbe summarized into three broad categories or protective factors:individual characteristics or personalattributes, family influences,and extra-familial support. A central tenet of behavioral disturbance is itsstability over time. Although variation in stability is observed, it cannot be assumed that most childrenoutgrow psychopathology.

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10There are times when a less-than-optimal developmental outcome occurs within the context of normaldevelopment. Four primary areas within normal development where problems might occur include earlyattachment, temperament style, emotional regulation, and social cognitive processing. Inherent in all fourtopics is the assumption that development is based on the interaction of both biological and experientialfactors with the child.CONTENT OUTLINEINTRODUCTIONPERSPECTIVES THEORIES, MODELSTheoriesModelsTHE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE: AN OVERVIEWCONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTSEARCHING FOR CAUSAL FACTORS AND PROCESSESPATHWAYS OF DEVELOPMENTEquifinality and MultifinalityRISK, VULNERABILITY, AND RESILIENCERisk and VulnerabilityResilienceCONTINUITY OF DISORDERNORMAL DEVELOPMENT, PROBLEMATIC OUTCOMESAttachmentTemperamentEmotion and Its RegulationUnderstanding and RegulationSocial Cognitive ProcessingOVERVIEWKEY TERMS

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11LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:➢Paradigms, theories, and models in the study of psychopathology➢The developmental psychopathology perspective➢The concept of development➢How causation is variously conceptualized➢Pathways of development➢Aspects of risk, vulnerability, and resilience➢Continuity and change in psychological disorders➢Examples of how normal and abnormal development go hand in handKEY TERMSparadigm (p. 20)theory (p. 20)interactional models (p. 20)vulnerability-stress model (p. 20)transactional models (p. 21)systems models (p. 21)developmental psychopathology perspective (p. 21)development (p. 21)medical model (p. 22)direct effect, indirect effect (p. 22)mediator (p. 22)moderator (p. 22)necessary, sufficient, contributing causes (p. 22)equifinality (p. 24)multifinality (p.25)risks(p. 25)vulnerability (p. 26)resilience (p. 27)developmental tasks (p. 27)heterotypic, homotypic continuity (p. 29)attachment (p. 30)secure, insecure, disorganized attachment (p. 30)temperament (p. 31)goodness-of-fit (p. 31)differential susceptibility hypothesis (p. 33)

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12emotion (p. 33)social cognitive processing (p. 34)

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13LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS1.Chapter 2 begins with a review of perspectives, theories, and models.Even those students who arepsychology majors will benefit from some additional discussion of these concepts.One potentiallyinteresting strategy is to present the concepts of perspectives, theories, and models with the analogyof a filing cabinet.As research findings are accumulated,perspectivesare developed.When aperspective is shared by investigators, it becomes aparadigm.New files are created in the filingcabinet.Related to the development of perspectives istheory construction.When new theories arecreated, relevant files are moved within that category.This mirrors the definition of a theory:aformal,integratedsetofprinciplesorpropositionsthatexplainsphenomena.Modelsarerepresentations or descriptions of the phenomenon under study. Models may be viewed as additionalfiles in the filing cabinet, further helping to organize the researcher’s thinking surrounding aparticular topic under investigation.2.Who's Watching the Kids? Effects of Nonparental Child Care on Development. Discuss with yourstudents the effects of daycare on infant attachment. One of the biggest changes in childcare duringthe past several decades has been in non-parental daycare. More children now receive early childhoodcare in this manner than in any other way. This dramatic change has led to research on the potentialimpact of daycare on children’s overall well-being. One area that received much attention was thepotential negative impact on the infant-caregiver attachment. Extensive research has led most expertsto conclude that daycare, in and of itself, does not affect attachment, but this research did indicate thatcertain factors might increase the insecure attachment risk among some children. Students may bedirected to the following website, where they will find many interesting articles and commentaries ondaycare:www.daycare.com.3.Discuss the ethical dilemmas that would likely occur in the following situations:➢A mother finds that her unborn child has a chromosomal disorder, and therefore the child willnot live a "normal" life.➢A young woman discovers that she is carrying genes that greatly increase her risk for breastcancer. Will her insurance company cancel her policy? Should she consider a mastectomy as aprevention measure even though her risk for developing the cancer is less than one hundredpercent?➢In the future, through genetic analysis, the prediction of certain illnesses may be possible.Should this information be provided to prospective employers? Should the prerequisite of agenetic analysis be present in certain types of employment? Could individuals be assured thatthese genetic records would remain confidential? Could this lead to discrimination?➢If genetic research clearly demonstrates the genetic etiology of certain disorders, shouldindividuals who carry these genetic defects (that could be passed on to children) be allowed toreproduce?➢Should individuals in our society be forced to undergo genetic testing? Under what conditionsshould it be allowed? Does this violate a person's right to privacy?

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14STUDENT ACTIVITIES1.Should the courts or the parents make the ultimate decision for medical treatment of children? Thecase of Kate Wernecke (a 12-year-old Texan who was taken from her parents and placed in fostercare in order to receive radiation treatment for her Hodgkin's disease) addresses this question.Howdo you feel about the state overriding the parents in deciding the best course of treatment for a child?In this case, the child has a type of cancer that has a high rate of cure with the combinations oftreatment that the doctors wished to pursue.2.Attachment Lecture. Opportunities for the students to learn about attachment theory come from thelinks given below. You may want to discuss the topic in class in some detail or ask students to gathertheir own information. Below are links to some articles on attachment:This is a link to a very detailed description of the life and works of Mary Ainsworth.http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/g2602/0000/2602000016/print.jhtmlThis is a link providing a great description of the basic types of attachments.http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htmThis is an informative site with a discussion of infants and the emotion of anger.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/102/5/SE1/12683.Divide your students into small groups. Each group will be charged with developing a simple modelfor the concept ofdevelopment(students are instructed to review the textbook’s discussion ofdevelopment). Among the models that the groups might explore areinteractional, transactional,andsystems.SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGSBooksBowlby, J. (1969)Attachment and loss(Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D.J. (1995).Developmental psychopathology. New York: John Wiley.Fallon, A. E., & Brabender, V. M. (2012).Asecureconnection:Thetetheringofattachmentandgood-enoughmaternalcare.InS.Akhtar,(Ed.),Themotherandherchild:Clinicalaspectsofattachment,separation,andloss.(p.15-43).Lanham,MD:JasonAronson.ReadingsAinsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S.M. (1970).Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by thebehavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation.Child Development,41, 49-67.Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood.Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,15, 9-52.

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15Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1977). Temperamental individuality from childhood to adolescence.Journal ofAmerican Academy or Child Psychiatry,16, 218-226.Green, J., & Goldwyn, R. (2002). Attachment disorganization and psychopathology: New findings inattachment research.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3,835-846.Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development.American Psychologist,56,227-238.Media Resources7 Up-14 Up-21 Up-28 Up-35 Up-42 Up–49 Up(various years)PBS (7 parts; varying lengths)Noted director Michael Apted has followed the lives of two groups of British school children:those“to the manor born,” and those of the working class. Starting from age 7 (in 1964) and continuingthrough adulthood, we glimpse the changes their lives have undergone. Later films contain clipsfrom earlier films; these are a “must-see.”Child of Our Time: A Year-by-Year Study of Childhood Development(2007)BBC(11parts; 60 min each)In the year 2000, producersatthe BBC began documenting the growth and development of 25newborn children from a wide range of social, ethnic, and geographical backgrounds. This 11-partseries shows viewers the results so far, capturing pivotal stages in each child’s learning process,manner of socialization, and physical development.Grief: A Peril in Infancy(1940s)University of Akron (24 min).Renee Spitz's original footage of children in institutional environmentsis presented. The 1940s studyhighlights how grief impacted the physical and emotional life of children.John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007)Films for the Humanities and Sciences (35 min).This film gives a solid overview of attachment theory, focusing on the work of its primary proponent.This is a solid introduction to a perspective that dominates the field of child and adolescentdevelopment.WEB LINKSAmerican Academy of Pediatrics:www.aap.orgChild Trends:www.childtrends.orgChildren, Youth, and Family Consortium(CYFC):www.cyfc.umn.eduChildren's Institute International:www.childrensinstitute.orgChildStats: America's Children:www.childstats.govChildTrauma:www.childtrauma.org

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16CHAPTER 3BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTALCONTEXTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGYCHAPTER SUMMARYFrom the moment of conception, development is influenced by multiple interacting factors and processes.Therefore,anyriskfactorsforpsychopathologymustbeconsideredwithinthebiologicalandenvironmental contexts of development. This chapter provides an overview of each of the majorinfluences on development--biological, learning and cognitive, and sociocultural--with an emphasis onhow each influence can contribute to behavioral problems.Biological forces are often at the forefront of development. The influence of biology, in many ways, laysthe groundwork for a child’s future. It can set in motion a series of changes that put a child at risk or thatoptimize his or her opportunities for growth. Prenatal influences–such as maternal stress, poor prenatalcare, substance abuse, malnutrition, exposure to teratogenic agents, and other possible dangerousconditions--are all potentially harmful factors that can have a major impact on the developing embryoand fetus. Structural anomalies, insults to various brain regions, problems in neurotransmission or neuro-transmitters, and abnormal development or functioning of the nervous systems are all factors that can puta child at risk. Perinatal influences--including medication given to the mother during labor, unusualdelivery, and anoxia--may result in neurological problems in the newborn. Postnatal damage may occuras a result of accidents, illness, malnutrition, and exposure to harmful agents. The ability of the young torecover from brain insults is unpredictable. Whereas plasticity is obviously beneficial, early damage to thedeveloping brain can interfere with subsequent development.Some genetic processes can produce structural defects or errors in chromosomes. Genetic influencesoccur through single-gene inheritance (Tay-Sachs, Huntington’s, sickle-cell anemia) and multigeneticprocess. These influences are studied through a variety of methods including adoption, twin and familymethods,and molecular analyses. Genes and the environment collaborate with each other through gene-environmentinteractionsandgene-environmentcorrelations.Inheritance(alongwithsharedandnonshared environmental effects) has been identified in many behavioral disorders. Gene-environmentcorrelations remind us that a child’s experiences are not independent of genetic influences.Learning and cognition are closely interwoven with development.Through learning and cognition,childrencontinuouslytakeininformationandthinkabouttheworld.Themodelsofclassicalconditioning, operant learning, and observational learning share the assumption that behavior is learned.A problem behavior can be changed through a learning process that can lead to both the acquisition of anew behavior and the removal of the problematic behavior.Approaches to cognition focus on howindividuals mentally process information, perceive, construct and store their perceptions, and how theythink and act according to this information.The sociocultural context of development consists of overlapping and interacting domains of influencesthat include family, peers, community, societal, and cultural influences. Development, whether adaptiveor maladaptive, occurs within this system and is also influenced by this system. Theecologicalmodel(ecology refers to the interrelationship of organisms and their environment) conceptualizes the young as

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17embedded within and interacting with numerous domains of overlapping, transactional environmentalinfluences. Family influence, most prominent during childhood when developmental malleability is high,also may endure over the entire life span.Family interactioniscomplex, with caregivers taking on manyroles. The quality of the relationship between parents and their offspring is best fostered through anauthoritative, warm parenting style.Maltreatment of youth can be thought of as an extreme failure to provide adequate parenting. It can alsobe viewed as a failure of the larger social system to provide conditions that foster adequate parenting.Such undue failure to protect the child and/or provide positive aspects of parenting might be expected toadversely affect a wide variety of developmental processes and increase the risk for a variety ofproblematic outcomes.Since the late 1970s, the problems of abuse and maltreatment have become both a major public concernand the focus of increased research and professional attention. Multiple, interrelated, and complexdeterminants--such as characteristics of the abuser, characteristics of the child, parenting practices,parent-child interactional processes, and sociocultural influences--contribute to these problems. Thesocio-cultural context includes the immediate social environment (e.g., family employment, extendedfamily, social networks) and the larger societal-cultural context (e.g., poverty, societal tolerance forviolence).Sadly, parents or parent surrogates are the most likely perpetrators of abuse, although themajority of maltreated children do not perpetuate an intergenerational cycle. There is some evidence thatearly maltreatment may be associated with neurobiological outcomes and alteration of structural andfunctional regions of the brain, as well as cognitive and psychosocial difficulties, health-related problems,and appreciable impairments in all early developmental domains and later adjustment. In all cases, thebasic developmental processes of children in abusive homes are disrupted by maltreatment.The family has often been assumed to consist of two parents and their children living together in thehome. In fact, families have always been varied. Even so, dramatic changes have occurred in familystructure during the last several decades in the United States and other Westernized countries.Divorceisa particularly complex process of family transitions that heightens developmental risk, and its effects onchildren depend on multiple variables. One of the many reasons that family factors affect the developmentof behavior and behavioral problems is their influence on peer relationships.Poor peer relationshipsinchildhood are associated with both childhood problems and later problem behavior.Low socioeconomic status and the poverty associated withitdisadvantage children in many facets ofdevelopment. Poor children are exposed to multiple physical and psychosocial risks, including fewerenriched school opportunities and reduced motivation for learning and achievement. Poor neighborhoodsalso are a risk factor for reduced academic performance, mental health, and other aspects of development.Neighborhood influences may operate through community resources, family relationships, and socialorganizationtomaintain order.Finally, withina broad cultural context, behavior can be shaped in ways that are maladaptive for youngpeople. Risk may be particularly high for individuals whose ethnic or racial background is other thanmainstream. Factors such as involuntary acculturation and early experiences with prejudice, racism, anddiscriminationcanhaveanimpactonachild'searlyself-conceptandemotionalwell-being.Unfortunately,minoritygroupmembersoftenexperiencedisadvantagesinseekingandreceivingappropriate treatment for behavioral problems.

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18CONTENT OUTLINEINTRODUCTIONBRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEMBrain Development: Biology and ExperienceStructureNeurotransmissionNERVOUS SYSTEM AND RISK FOR DISORDERED FUNCTIONINGPrenatal InfluencesPerinatal and Postnatal InfluencesGENETIC CONTEXTSingle-Gene InheritanceMultiple-Gene Inheritance: Quantitative MethodsSearching for Genes and Their Effects: Molecular MethodsGene-Environment InterplayLEARNING AND COGNITIONClassical ConditioningOperant LearningObservational LearningCognitive ProcessesCognitive-Behavioral PerspectiveSOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT: AN OVERVIEWFAMILY CONTEXT, MALTREATMENT, AND DIVORCEParent Roles, Styles, PsychopathologyParental RolesParenting StylesParent PsychopathologyMaltreatmentDefining MaltreatmentFactors Contributing to MaltreatmentConsequences of MaltreatmentChanges in Family Structure: DivorceHeightened RiskPredictors of AdjustmentPEER INFLUENCESCOMMUNITY AND SOCIETAL CONTEXTSSchool InfluencesSocioeconomic Status and PovertyNeighborhoodsCulture, Ethnicity, and Minority StatusOVERVIEWKEY TERMS

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19LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:➢Brain and nervous system development, structure, and function➢Pre-, peri-, and postnatal risks to the nervous system➢The genetic context of development, including genetic research➢Basic learning/cognitive processes and their role in development➢An ecological model of sociocultural influences on development➢The family context of development, including maltreatment and divorce➢Influences of peers on development➢Community and societal contexts of developmentKEY TERMSneurons (p. 37)myelin (p. 38)pruning (p. 38)central nervous system (p. 38)peripheral nervous system (p. 38)endocrine system (p. 38)hindbrain(p. 38)midbrain, forebrain (p. 39)cell body, dendrites, axon (p. 39)synapse (p. 39)neurotransmitters(p. 39)teratogens(p. 40)Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (p. 40)plasticity (p. 41)chromosomes (p. 41)DNA (p. 41)genes (p. 41)behavior genetics (p. 41)transcription (p. 42)translation (p. 42)epigenetics (p. 42)genotype, phenotype (p. 43)dominant genes, recessive genes (p. 43)index case, proband (p. 43)quantitative trait loci (QTL) (p. 43)

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20quantitative genetic methods (p. 43)heritability (p. 43)shared and nonshared environmental influences (p. 43)linkage analysis (p. 44)association analysis (p. 44)genome-wide linkage and association analyses (p. 44)gene-environment interaction (p. 44)gene-environment correlation (p. 44)classical conditioning (p. 45)operant learning (p. 45)observational learning (p. 47)cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 47)parenting styles (p. 49)child abuse (p. 51)maltreatment (p. 51)acculturation (p. 62)LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS1.Students’ own personal life story. Before discussing Chapter 3, have the students think about whothey are. Which approach has contributed most to who they are today? For example, are they more aproduct of the earliest influences in their life (psychodynamic approach), early interpersonal bonds orlosses (attachment theory), learning or modeling (behavioral), and so on? Lead a discussion focusingon the reasons for the beliefs they hold.2.Behavior Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Day-to-Day Livinga.Discuss the following points: Using the behavioral approach, how would you get a child to refrainfrom drawing on a wall by using either positive or negative reinforcement?b.What are the side effects if severe punishment is used to control behavior? Are there anyexamples of these side effects that we see in everyday life? According to behavior theory, what isthe best way to control undesirable behavior? How does our society deal with undesirablebehaviors? What are the results? What improvements could be made?c.Ask the class members to discuss the implications of modeling and media violence for children’sbehavior. Does violence on television affect younger or older children equally? Should televisionviewing be limited?Are girls or boys affected more? Are there other examples of culturalviolence your students can suggest?3.The text labels Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)a preventable tragedy. Althoughthis disturbingdevelopmental problem may indeed be preventable, this depends on pregnant women’swillingness toprevent. The federal government has mandated warning labels on containers of alcoholic beverages:“According to the Surgeon General, women should not drink alcoholicbeverages during pregnancybecause of the risk of birth defects.”There is also a warning that“consumption of alcoholic beveragesimpairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems.” Quiteobviously, the latter warning is not always observed; in fact, some would say that it is largely ignored.With this in mind,one has to wonder about theeffectiveness of the warning concerning pregnantwomen’s consumption of alcohol. Have yourstudents speculate about whether there is more that canbedone to prevent FAS. Pose thequestion, “Should pregnant women be allowed to purchasealcoholic beverages?”Then, remind them that as inthe case of underage drinking, other adults can

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21easily purchase alcohol for thosewho are prohibited from using it. This topic should generate someinteresting discussion.4.The Human Genome Project website. This website is a great resource for educating yourself about theHuman Genome Project. You can click on any of the 24 chromosomes and determine the types ofgenetic diseases associated with each disorder. For a project, have students select any 5 chromosomesand compile a list of 20 associated disorders (e.g., chromosome 15, Tay Sachs disease).http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtmlSTUDENT ACTIVITIES1.Experience a treatment: Dreams. Dreams were once considered the “royal road to the unconscious.”Have students keep a dream log. They should keep a red pencil and paper next to their beds (they mayalso want a small flashlight). Immediately upon waking, tell the students to record their dreams alongwith the date. Do they have any association or thoughts as to the meaning of the dream? Anysymbolism they might consider? Have the students think about their current situations and lifeexperiences to see if they uncover any conscious connections to their dreams. If possible, have themkeep the dream log for a week to see if any further dreams or insights may arise. Many students willsay they don’t dream. Remind them everyone dreams, although they may not recall their dreams. Theavailability of the paper and pen (and often the power of suggestion) may assist the students in betterrecall. Finally, have them analyze the possibilities of unconscious determinants.2.Habit change: Have students consider a habit they may want to change (e.g., nail biting). Ask them tokeep a behavior log for a week with separate columns for day, time of day, place and person, andsituation during which the behavior occurred. You may then encourage students to follow up byconsidering ways to remove themselves from that situation.3.The genogram: Sociocultural perspective. In order to provide a child and family with effectivetreatment, it is important to have a sense of the family as a unit.Some therapists prefer to use agenogram. Pendergast and Sherman (1978) suggest the use of the following symbols as studentscreate their genogram:males-square; females-circle; pets-asterisk. A triangle within a circle indicatespregnancy; ages are placed inside the symbols; straight vertical lines indicate relationships by blood;dashed horizontal lines indicate non-married persons living together; a wavy line represents aconflictual relationship; a double slash across a horizontal line indicates divorce; and a single slashwith an ‘s’ across a horizontal line is a separation.Pendergast, E.G., & Sherman, C.O. (1978). A guide to the genogram. InThe best of the family1973-1978. New York: TheCenter for Family Living.4.Create your own genetic trait family tree. Have students learn more personally about genetic traits bygoing to this website:www.childrenheartinstitute.org/educate/fmlytree/fmlytree.htmIf you are interested in creating your own genetic trait family tree, go to this website for instructionsand a copy of a family tree to complete.

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22SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGSBooksBurroughs, A. (2003).Running with scissors. Picador.Gregory, J., & Feldmann, M. (2003).Sickened: The memoir of a Munchausen by proxy childhood.NewYork: Bantam Books.Moffatt,G. K.(2003).Wounded innocents and fallen angel: Child abuse and child aggression.PraegerPublishers.Rymer, R. (1994).Genie: A scientific tragedy. Harper Paperbacks.Cole,T. (2004).Charred souls: A story of recreational child abuse.Oberpark Publishing.Wilson, S. (2000).Daddy's apprentice: Incest, corruption, and betrayal: A survivor's story. Writer'sShowcase Press.ReadingsBoomsma, D. J.;Busjahn, A.;& Peltonen, L. (2002). Classical twin studies and beyond.Nature Reviews:Genetics,3, 872-882.Bouchard, T. J., Jr., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on human psychologicaldifferences.Journal of Neurobiology,54, 4-45.Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2004). Genetic Influences in human psychological traits: A survey.CurrentDirections in Psychological Science,13(4), 148-151.Carey, G. (2003).Human genetics for the social sciences.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Evans, G.W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty.American Psychologist,59, 77-92.Hinton, D. (2001). Kyol Goeu (“Wind Overload”) Part 1: A cultural syndrome of orthostatic panic amongKhmer refugees.Transcultural Psychiatry38(4),403-432.Marcus, G. (2004).The birth of the mind: How a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of humanthought.New York: Basic Books.Plomin, R.;DeFries, J. C.;Craig, I. W.;& McGuffin, P. (Eds.) (2003).Behavioral genetics in the post-genomic era.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Ridley, M. (2003).Nature via nurture: Genes, experience andwhatmakes us human.New York:HarperCollins.Rutter, M. (2002). Nature, nurture, and development: From evangelism through science toward policy andpractice.Child Development,73, 1-21.

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23MEDIA RESOURCESBroken Child: Case Studies of Child Abuse(2000)HBO-Films for the Humanities and Sciences (61 min).Narrated by Susan Sarandon,this filminvestigates the cycle of child abuse. Included arecase studiesof children with developmental difficulties caused by maternal substance abuse, PTSD from domesticviolence, andchildren withlife-threatening injuries from beatings.Broken Bonds: Munchausen Syndrome by ProxyFilms for the Humanities and Sciences (26 min).This film examines the case of Morgan Reid, who was thought to have died from Sudden InfantDeath Syndrome. When the Reid’s newbornson began to experience similar symptoms, a review ofthe case led to a change in the ruling in Morgan's death from SIDS to murder.Essentials of Play Therapy with Abused Children(1998)Guilford Publications (40 min).Emphasizesthebenefits of play therapy for children who have been physically or sexually abused.See the therapeutic playroom, how play therapies work, and helpful advicefrom professionals.Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future(2007)Films for the Humanities and Sciences (31 min).Fetal alcohol syndrome can hold devastating consequences for those who acquire it. This filmpresents current thinking and research on diagnosis, education, and amelioration of this spectrumdisorder.The Bad Seed(1956)Warner StudiosDo heredity and environment play equal parts in a child's development? Or is one factor stronger thanthe other? We may never know … does bad beget bad?The Nine Months That Made You: Pregnancy and Human Development(2011)BBC (50 min).Where do babies come from? Hopefully your students already know. If so, this film will be arefresher. If not, this film will offer much-needed information! In any event, it will probablydisabuse your students of some misbegotten notions they may hold regarding pregnancy and prenataldevelopment.The Trouble with Evan(1996)Filmmaker's Library (90 min).As early as agefour, Evandisplayed severe behavioral problems. Cameras were placed in Evan'shome for three months.This film shows moments of family conflict, intense verbal and emotionalabuse, and the general goings-on around Evan’s home.It also includes excerpts of therapy sessionswith five young offenders at a juvenile correction center.What Is Childhood Trauma? (2002)Understanding Childhood Trauma (29 min).

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24In this series,Bruce D. Perry explains how to identify, understand, and supportively respond totrauma in the life of a child.

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25WEB LINKSB.F. Skinner:www.bfskinner.orgClassical Conditioning:www.brembs.net/classical/classical.htmlHuman Genome Project:www.ornl.gov/hgmisNeurotransmitters in Living Color:www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/neurotrans/neurotrans.htmlNews in Science:www.sciencedaily.comOperant Conditioning:www.uwm.edu/~johnchay/oc.htmRecent Developments in Human Behavioral Genetics:www.faseb.org/genetics/ashg/policy/pol-28.htmSchedules of Reinforcement:www.brembs.net/operant/schedule.htmlSelf-Efficacy:http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm

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26CHAPTER 4RESEARCH: ITS ROLE AND METHODSCHAPTER SUMMARYScience, from the Latin word for “knowledge” or “to know,” refers to knowledge gained by particularmethods of inquiry. Although common sense can tell us some things about behavior, it is science thatgives us systematic, reliable, and accurate knowledge. Through systematic scientific inquiry,researchersdescribe and explain phenomena in an effort to answer questions such as what differentiates normal andabnormal behavior, the demographic factors associated with specific disorders, or how psychologicaldisorders change over time.Just as researchers pose a variety of questions and hypotheses, they rely on different methods andstrategies to answer them, depending on the purposes of the research. In all cases, careful considerationmust be given to selection of participants, observation and measurements, and the reliability and validityof the measurement process. Most psychological disorder research draws participants from clinics,hospitals, schools, and other facilities serving youngsters with problems. Random selection helps ensurethe sample tested represents the population from whichit wasdrawn.However, it is unlikely thesepopulations represent all young people. These biases have important implications for how disorders arerecognized, assessed, defined, and represented.Observation and measurement are at the core of scientific inquiry. Accurate observation, clear operationaldefinitions, reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate) measurement are essential features of the scientificprocess. The concepts of reliability and validity apply to the results of research as well.There’s anassumption that events should repeat themselves (reliability), given the same or similar conditions.There’s a more crucial assumption of the correctness (validity) of the findings. Internal validity isthedegree to which alternative explanations for results can be confidently ruled out. External validity refersto the generalizability of findings to other populations and settings.There are many methods of research, each suited to particular purposes and each with associated strengthsand weaknesses. Thechoice of a research method often depends on the purpose of the investigation, aswellaspracticalandethicalconsiderations.Oneusefuldistinctionisbetweendescriptive(ornonexperimental) and experimental methods. The general purpose of descriptive methods is to portray aphenomenon of interest. Experimental studies can be either randomized or quasi-experimental. There arefive research methods commonly used in the study of developmental psychopathology.The case study isa fertile source of descriptive material about an individual. Correlational studies provide informationabout the relationship among variables and are widely used in developmental psychopathology research.A more powerful way to examine hypotheses about relationships is to employ experiments of nature.Arandomized experiment is the only “true” experiment because it is the strongest method for detectingcausal links between variables. Single-case experimental designs involve a manipulation with a single (ora few) participants.Studies that consider change over time may be cross-sectional, longitudinal, or accelerated longitudinal intheir design.The cross-sectional strategy examines groups of people at a particular pointintime andfrequently is used to examine age differences. The longitudinal strategyismore appropriate for tracingdevelopment over a span of time. Accelerated longitudinal designs combine the longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies to permit examination of developmental change, age differences, and the influence of

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27generational effects.Retrospective (follow-back) studies and prospective longitudinal strategies identifyrisk and possible causal factors.Epidemiological research, which has its foundations in medicine, is based on the assumption that diseaseor disorders can best be understood by viewing individuals in the context of the physical and socialenvironments in which the disorder develops.Epidemiological research provides data on the rates anddistribution of disorders, modes of transmission, and on factors correlated with the disorder in largepopulations. The findings contribute to and assist social policy efforts to deliver optimal mental healthservices.Recently there has been increased interest in qualitative strategies. Qualitative and quantitative strategieshave often been viewed as adversarial, due perhaps to their different emphases. Qualitative researchplaces a premium on individuals' perception of their experiences in their natural environments. Data oftenare collected through in-depth interviews or life histories. To support their positions, advocates ofqualitative approaches point to what they see as many shortcomings of quantitative methods. However,used together, the methods can provide complementary sources of information. Improved scientificmethods may help achieve the goals of better assessment, more successful treatment, and the reduction orprevention of many child and adolescent disorders.The ethicalconductof research is especially salientwhen conducting studieswith children andadolescents.Ethical guidelines are established andevaluated by institutional review boards. Somefundamental guidelines are voluntary informed consent, privacy, and assessment of risks and benefits tothe participant. Ethical issues are further addressed by several government agencies and professionalorganizations. Special protection is given to the young and those with mental disabilities. Ultimately,judgments about what is ethical often come down to balancing the individual's competence to understandand voluntarily consent to participate, the risk of harm, and the possibility of benefit.The principle ofconfidentiality assures that research participants have the right to control the degree to which informationcan be disclosed to others. Plainly, no serious harm should be done to participants.Nonmaleficencerefersto guarding against the potential for harm, whereasbeneficencerequires that benefits be maximized.CONTENT OUTLINEINTRODUCTIONFUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCHSelection of ParticipantsObservation and MeasurementReliability of Research ResultsValidity of Research ResultsBASIC METHODS OF RESEARCHCase StudiesCorrelational StudiesRandomized ExperimentsSingle-Case Experimental DesignReversal DesignsMultiple Baseline Designs

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28TIME FRAMES IN RESEARCHCross-Sectional ResearchRetrospective Longitudinal ResearchProspective Longitudinal ResearchAccelerated Longitudinal ResearchQUALITATIVE RESEARCHExamples of Qualitative StudiesCombining Qualitative and Quantitative MethodsETHICAL ISSUESVoluntary Informed ConsentConfidentialityBalancing It All: Harm and GoodOVERVIEWKEY TERMSLEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:➢The aim of science and the roles of observation and measurement➢Reliability and validity of research results➢The case study, correlational methods, the experiment, and single-subject designs➢Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and accelerated longitudinal designs➢Qualitative research➢Ethical issues in researchKEY TERMShypothesis testing (p. 66)random selection (p. 66)selection bias (p. 67)operational definition (p. 67)validity (p. 67)reliable(p. 67)naturalistic observation (p. 67)interobserver reliability (p. 67)

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