Lecture Notes for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 8th Edition
Lecture Notes for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 8th Edition summarizes important topics for quick revision.
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Instructor’s Resource Manual
to accompany
Child and Adolescent Psychology
8th Edition
Rita Wicks-Nelson and Allen C. Israel
Alan Swinkels
St. Edward’s University
to accompany
Child and Adolescent Psychology
8th Edition
Rita Wicks-Nelson and Allen C. Israel
Alan Swinkels
St. Edward’s University
Contents
Chapter 1 ........Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 ........The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective .........................................9
Chapter 3 ........Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology ......................16
Chapter 4 ........Research: Its Role and Methods ...................................................................26
Chapter 5 ........Classification, Assessment, and Intervention ...............................................34
Chapter 6 ........Anxiety Disorders .........................................................................................43
Chapter 7 ........Mood Disorders ............................................................................................53
Chapter 8 ........Conduct Problems .........................................................................................62
Chapter 9 ........Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder .....................................................71
Chapter 10 ......Language and Learning Disabilities .............................................................79
Chapter 11 ......Intellectual Disability ....................................................................................86
Chapter 12 ......Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia .............................................92
Chapter 13 ......Disorders of Basic Physical Functions .......................................................101
Chapter 14 ......Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions ................................111
Chapter 15 ......Evolving Concerns for Youth .....................................................................118
Chapter 1 ........Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 ........The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective .........................................9
Chapter 3 ........Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology ......................16
Chapter 4 ........Research: Its Role and Methods ...................................................................26
Chapter 5 ........Classification, Assessment, and Intervention ...............................................34
Chapter 6 ........Anxiety Disorders .........................................................................................43
Chapter 7 ........Mood Disorders ............................................................................................53
Chapter 8 ........Conduct Problems .........................................................................................62
Chapter 9 ........Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder .....................................................71
Chapter 10 ......Language and Learning Disabilities .............................................................79
Chapter 11 ......Intellectual Disability ....................................................................................86
Chapter 12 ......Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia .............................................92
Chapter 13 ......Disorders of Basic Physical Functions .......................................................101
Chapter 14 ......Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions ................................111
Chapter 15 ......Evolving Concerns for Youth .....................................................................118
Contents
Chapter 1 ........Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 ........The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective .........................................9
Chapter 3 ........Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology ......................16
Chapter 4 ........Research: Its Role and Methods ...................................................................26
Chapter 5 ........Classification, Assessment, and Intervention ...............................................34
Chapter 6 ........Anxiety Disorders .........................................................................................43
Chapter 7 ........Mood Disorders ............................................................................................53
Chapter 8 ........Conduct Problems .........................................................................................62
Chapter 9 ........Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder .....................................................71
Chapter 10 ......Language and Learning Disabilities .............................................................79
Chapter 11 ......Intellectual Disability ....................................................................................86
Chapter 12 ......Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia .............................................92
Chapter 13 ......Disorders of Basic Physical Functions .......................................................101
Chapter 14 ......Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions ................................111
Chapter 15 ......Evolving Concerns for Youth .....................................................................118
Chapter 1 ........Introduction .....................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 ........The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective .........................................9
Chapter 3 ........Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology ......................16
Chapter 4 ........Research: Its Role and Methods ...................................................................26
Chapter 5 ........Classification, Assessment, and Intervention ...............................................34
Chapter 6 ........Anxiety Disorders .........................................................................................43
Chapter 7 ........Mood Disorders ............................................................................................53
Chapter 8 ........Conduct Problems .........................................................................................62
Chapter 9 ........Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder .....................................................71
Chapter 10 ......Language and Learning Disabilities .............................................................79
Chapter 11 ......Intellectual Disability ....................................................................................86
Chapter 12 ......Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia .............................................92
Chapter 13 ......Disorders of Basic Physical Functions .......................................................101
Chapter 14 ......Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions ................................111
Chapter 15 ......Evolving Concerns for Youth .....................................................................118
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Child and adolescent psychological problems and disorders have interested mental health professionals
for some time; however, it is only in recent years that this interest has reached a larger audience. What is
abnormal child or adolescent behavior? How do we distinguish between normal or abnormal behavior?
How can we be certain that a behavior is not part of normal development?
There are as many variations in children’s behavior as there are names for the behavior. Regardless of the
label, there is no simple or exact way to define disordered behavior. All groups have norms for what is
considered appropriate behavior, and those norms can sometimes differ across cultural groups or various
ethnicities. Whether implicit or explicit, the norms tell us how to behave and help us distinguish the fine
line between normal and abnormal. Behavior is considered abnormal if a child or adolescent consistently
violates some of these rules and the behavior interferes with everyday functioning and basic
developmental tasks. Attitudes about what is normal vary over time and situations, or across the people
observing the behavior. (The definition of child and adolescent problem behavior is made by others—
usually a parent or guardian, teacher, or family physician.) Not surprisingly, disagreements can exist
among adults as to whether a child has a problem.
The number of children and adolescents with a psychological disorder is staggering, and the challenges
they face are significant. An estimated 15-20 percent of all four- to eighteen-year-olds experience
psychological disorders. Contrary to what many believe, many psychological disorders do not go away
with time. Rather, a large proportion of youth will continue to face difficulties into adulthood. The pain
and suffering that children and adolescents experience extends to families, schools, communities, and the
broader society, as reflected in the costs of medical, psychological, and educational services for children
and their families. It also has been suggested that changing social conditions may increase the risk of
disorders.
Among children and adolescents, disordered behavior must be considered within a developmental
framework. What may be acceptable behavior at one developmental stage can become problem behavior
at a later stage of development. Certain behaviors (such as autism) appear during the early years of
development, whereas other conditions (such as schizophrenia) develop during the teenage years. Gender
differences are found in the rates and expression of different psychological disorders, with boys generally
exhibiting higher rates than girls. Methodological issues, such as biased clinical samples, and differences
in expression of the disorder may account in part for some of the reported results.
Historically, interest in psychopathology focused primarily on adults. The foundations for classifying and
understanding problem behaviors among children were established from several sources, such as efforts
by Kraepelin to identify and classify mental illness, the introduction of psychoanalytic theory, techniques
of behaviorism and social learning, and the influence of the mental hygiene movement.
The current study and practice of child and adolescent psychopathology emphasizes a multidisciplinary
perspective and scientifically rigorous approach. Children are seen as having an active role in their
environment, and behavior results from a series of transactions involving timing, situation, and
characteristics of the individual. More than one professional is often involved in clinical activities with a
young person. Professional contact with youth typically involves some communication with families,
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Child and adolescent psychological problems and disorders have interested mental health professionals
for some time; however, it is only in recent years that this interest has reached a larger audience. What is
abnormal child or adolescent behavior? How do we distinguish between normal or abnormal behavior?
How can we be certain that a behavior is not part of normal development?
There are as many variations in children’s behavior as there are names for the behavior. Regardless of the
label, there is no simple or exact way to define disordered behavior. All groups have norms for what is
considered appropriate behavior, and those norms can sometimes differ across cultural groups or various
ethnicities. Whether implicit or explicit, the norms tell us how to behave and help us distinguish the fine
line between normal and abnormal. Behavior is considered abnormal if a child or adolescent consistently
violates some of these rules and the behavior interferes with everyday functioning and basic
developmental tasks. Attitudes about what is normal vary over time and situations, or across the people
observing the behavior. (The definition of child and adolescent problem behavior is made by others—
usually a parent or guardian, teacher, or family physician.) Not surprisingly, disagreements can exist
among adults as to whether a child has a problem.
The number of children and adolescents with a psychological disorder is staggering, and the challenges
they face are significant. An estimated 15-20 percent of all four- to eighteen-year-olds experience
psychological disorders. Contrary to what many believe, many psychological disorders do not go away
with time. Rather, a large proportion of youth will continue to face difficulties into adulthood. The pain
and suffering that children and adolescents experience extends to families, schools, communities, and the
broader society, as reflected in the costs of medical, psychological, and educational services for children
and their families. It also has been suggested that changing social conditions may increase the risk of
disorders.
Among children and adolescents, disordered behavior must be considered within a developmental
framework. What may be acceptable behavior at one developmental stage can become problem behavior
at a later stage of development. Certain behaviors (such as autism) appear during the early years of
development, whereas other conditions (such as schizophrenia) develop during the teenage years. Gender
differences are found in the rates and expression of different psychological disorders, with boys generally
exhibiting higher rates than girls. Methodological issues, such as biased clinical samples, and differences
in expression of the disorder may account in part for some of the reported results.
Historically, interest in psychopathology focused primarily on adults. The foundations for classifying and
understanding problem behaviors among children were established from several sources, such as efforts
by Kraepelin to identify and classify mental illness, the introduction of psychoanalytic theory, techniques
of behaviorism and social learning, and the influence of the mental hygiene movement.
The current study and practice of child and adolescent psychopathology emphasizes a multidisciplinary
perspective and scientifically rigorous approach. Children are seen as having an active role in their
environment, and behavior results from a series of transactions involving timing, situation, and
characteristics of the individual. More than one professional is often involved in clinical activities with a
young person. Professional contact with youth typically involves some communication with families,
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usually with one or more parents. The importance of the family is apparent in cases in which treatment is
discontinued prior to successful completion. The comparative immaturity, inexperience, and vulnerability
of children and adolescents require special considerations. Efforts by mental health professionals toward
establishing a therapeutic alliance with clients may increase the chance of a successful outcome.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
DEFINING AND IDENTIFYING ABNORMALITY
Atypical and Harmful Behavior
Developmental Standards
Culture and Ethnicity
Other Standards: Gender and Situations
The Role of Others
Changing Views of Abnormality
HOW COMMON ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS?
HOW ARE DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL AND DISORDER RELATED?
HOW ARE GENDER AND DISORDER RELATED?
Methodological Issues, True Differences
HISTORICAL INFLUENCES
Progress in the 19th Century
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory
Mental Hygiene and Child Guidance Movements
Scientific Study of Youth
CURRENT STUDY AND PRACTICE
Working with Youth and Their Families
Interdisciplinary Efforts
The Role of Parents
Working with Young Clients
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
usually with one or more parents. The importance of the family is apparent in cases in which treatment is
discontinued prior to successful completion. The comparative immaturity, inexperience, and vulnerability
of children and adolescents require special considerations. Efforts by mental health professionals toward
establishing a therapeutic alliance with clients may increase the chance of a successful outcome.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
DEFINING AND IDENTIFYING ABNORMALITY
Atypical and Harmful Behavior
Developmental Standards
Culture and Ethnicity
Other Standards: Gender and Situations
The Role of Others
Changing Views of Abnormality
HOW COMMON ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS?
HOW ARE DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL AND DISORDER RELATED?
HOW ARE GENDER AND DISORDER RELATED?
Methodological Issues, True Differences
HISTORICAL INFLUENCES
Progress in the 19th Century
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory
Mental Hygiene and Child Guidance Movements
Scientific Study of Youth
CURRENT STUDY AND PRACTICE
Working with Youth and Their Families
Interdisciplinary Efforts
The Role of Parents
Working with Young Clients
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ How psychological disorders are defined and identified
➢ The prevalence of psychological disorders
➢ The relationship between developmental level and psychological disorders
➢ The relationship between gender and psychological disorders
➢ Historical influences on understanding psychological disorders
➢ The current study and practice of abnormal child and adolescent psychology
KEY TERMS
developmental norms (p. 3)
culture, cultural norms (p. 3)
ethnicity (p. 4)
race (p. 4)
gender norms (p. 5)
situational norms (p. 5)
secular trends (p. 6)
demonology (p. 10)
somatogenesis (p. 10)
syndromes (p. 11)
psychoanalytic theory (p. 11)
psychogenesis (p. 11)
behaviorism (p. 13)
social learning perspective (p. 14)
cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 14)
mental hygiene movement (p. 14)
child guidance movement (p. 14)
therapeutic alliance (p. 17)
informed consent (p. 17)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ How psychological disorders are defined and identified
➢ The prevalence of psychological disorders
➢ The relationship between developmental level and psychological disorders
➢ The relationship between gender and psychological disorders
➢ Historical influences on understanding psychological disorders
➢ The current study and practice of abnormal child and adolescent psychology
KEY TERMS
developmental norms (p. 3)
culture, cultural norms (p. 3)
ethnicity (p. 4)
race (p. 4)
gender norms (p. 5)
situational norms (p. 5)
secular trends (p. 6)
demonology (p. 10)
somatogenesis (p. 10)
syndromes (p. 11)
psychoanalytic theory (p. 11)
psychogenesis (p. 11)
behaviorism (p. 13)
social learning perspective (p. 14)
cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 14)
mental hygiene movement (p. 14)
child guidance movement (p. 14)
therapeutic alliance (p. 17)
informed consent (p. 17)
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LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Sociologist W.I. Thomas is known for his classic “definition of the situation.” In Thomas’s words,
“If a person defines a situation as real, it will be real in its consequences for that individual.” This
concept is an excellent stepping-off place for a general discussion of the distinction between
normality and abnormality, at least from a sociological point of view. Deviant behavior may be
viewed from an absolute perspective (“Thou shalt not kill”), or from a relative perspective (“In
wartime, killing is socially sanctioned under certain circumstances”). Discuss this absolute/relative
distinction with the members of your class. Encourage them to offer other illustrations of Thomas’s
notion of the definition of the situation and how it impacts perceptions of normality.
2. The article cited below is an excellent way to get students involved in class discussion early in the
semester. It should also prompt students to think about the responsibilities of parents and caretakers
who work with children who may have psychological disorders, the importance of getting good help
as well as accurate diagnosis, the importance of awareness of mental disorders, and removing any
shame or stigma from a diagnosis of disorder. Ask students to read the article below or paste this
excerpt into a PowerPoint slide. Discuss the issue in class with responses from both sides.
Legal Responsibility and Schizophrenia: A credible defense?
In May of 1998, Kip Kinkel, age 15, shot and killed his parents, and the next day went to school
and opened fire on fellow students (killing two and injuring twenty-five). Kip, diagnosed with
paranoid schizophrenia, said he heard voices directing him to shoot his parents. After he killed
his mother, the voices said, “Go to school and kill everybody. Look what you’ve already done.”
The examining psychiatrist stated that he did not believe that there was any way to cure Kip’s
disorder, but that it could be managed with medication: “I would not want to see Kip Kinkel out
on the streets, ever, with this condition . . . without medicine and without an awful lot of
structure and support services arranged for him.”
(From PBS Frontline at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/).
3. Cultural, ethnic, and gender disparities in mental health provide a wealth of material for lecture
topics. Although rates may vary, mental disorders do not discriminate; they affect all classes, racial
and ethnic groups, and genders. However, there are many differences across social groups in the
understanding, acceptance, availability of services, and treatment of mental health. How might these
disparities affect the way people from different cultures, age ranges, classes, or genders view
abnormal behavior?
4. Invite a guest speaker with expertise on any of the following topics to share her or his knowledge
with your students:
a. The Psychologist—Ask a psychologist from your university Counseling Center or someone in
private practice to discuss her or his professional activities with your students. Ask your guest to
address such areas as training, clients’ problems, referrals, methods used, and success rates.
b. The Hospital—Invite an administrator or public relations person from an acute care hospital to
discuss her or his facility and its therapeutic services. Ask the person to include such points as
patient characteristics, major types of disorders, treatments, special programs, admissions
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Sociologist W.I. Thomas is known for his classic “definition of the situation.” In Thomas’s words,
“If a person defines a situation as real, it will be real in its consequences for that individual.” This
concept is an excellent stepping-off place for a general discussion of the distinction between
normality and abnormality, at least from a sociological point of view. Deviant behavior may be
viewed from an absolute perspective (“Thou shalt not kill”), or from a relative perspective (“In
wartime, killing is socially sanctioned under certain circumstances”). Discuss this absolute/relative
distinction with the members of your class. Encourage them to offer other illustrations of Thomas’s
notion of the definition of the situation and how it impacts perceptions of normality.
2. The article cited below is an excellent way to get students involved in class discussion early in the
semester. It should also prompt students to think about the responsibilities of parents and caretakers
who work with children who may have psychological disorders, the importance of getting good help
as well as accurate diagnosis, the importance of awareness of mental disorders, and removing any
shame or stigma from a diagnosis of disorder. Ask students to read the article below or paste this
excerpt into a PowerPoint slide. Discuss the issue in class with responses from both sides.
Legal Responsibility and Schizophrenia: A credible defense?
In May of 1998, Kip Kinkel, age 15, shot and killed his parents, and the next day went to school
and opened fire on fellow students (killing two and injuring twenty-five). Kip, diagnosed with
paranoid schizophrenia, said he heard voices directing him to shoot his parents. After he killed
his mother, the voices said, “Go to school and kill everybody. Look what you’ve already done.”
The examining psychiatrist stated that he did not believe that there was any way to cure Kip’s
disorder, but that it could be managed with medication: “I would not want to see Kip Kinkel out
on the streets, ever, with this condition . . . without medicine and without an awful lot of
structure and support services arranged for him.”
(From PBS Frontline at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/).
3. Cultural, ethnic, and gender disparities in mental health provide a wealth of material for lecture
topics. Although rates may vary, mental disorders do not discriminate; they affect all classes, racial
and ethnic groups, and genders. However, there are many differences across social groups in the
understanding, acceptance, availability of services, and treatment of mental health. How might these
disparities affect the way people from different cultures, age ranges, classes, or genders view
abnormal behavior?
4. Invite a guest speaker with expertise on any of the following topics to share her or his knowledge
with your students:
a. The Psychologist—Ask a psychologist from your university Counseling Center or someone in
private practice to discuss her or his professional activities with your students. Ask your guest to
address such areas as training, clients’ problems, referrals, methods used, and success rates.
b. The Hospital—Invite an administrator or public relations person from an acute care hospital to
discuss her or his facility and its therapeutic services. Ask the person to include such points as
patient characteristics, major types of disorders, treatments, special programs, admissions
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procedures and reasons for admission, release procedures, follow-up programs, and successes in
the neuropsychiatric program.
c. The Community Program—Ask a representative from a community program (city or
neighborhood) to come to class and describe the program to your students. This person could
represent a community mental health or mental retardation program, a work program for people
with mental retardation, an alcohol abuse program, or a group home.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Careers in mental health. Your students are probably interested in working with children at some
point, and many of them might plan a career in the field. It is often difficult to differentiate the roles
of the many mental health professionals who work with children. Many choices exist, depending on
one’s interests, training, and aptitude. Ask students to search the Internet for different career choices.
Some examples of careers are clinical, educational, counseling, or school psychologist; educational
therapist; psychiatric social worker; counselor; and psychiatric nurse. A good starting point is to find
the professional organization affiliated with the career (ex. psychologists -- www.apa.org; family
therapist -- American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy -- www.aamft.org).
2. Stigma. Even with cultural changes and diagnostic progress, stigma continues to plague the field of
mental health. A majority of disorders are underreported due to fear or embarrassment. Often parents
or guardians feel they will be viewed as “bad parents” or have “poor parenting skills” if their child is
diagnosed with a problem. Some even blame themselves for the onset of mental illness. In 1999 the
White House Conference on Mental Health called for a national anti-stigma campaign. Ask students
to read this summary (cited below) or find articles on current attitudes toward psychological
disorders, especially among children and adolescents. Do they think the campaign was successful?
Why or why not? If not, what specific ideas might they suggest (such as a media campaign) to change
people’s opinions? What populations would they target?
http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/generalspeeches/1999/19990607.html
3. What is normal? Presenting students with an actual case can be an excellent way to begin a class
period and quickly get your students involved in the day’s topic. Divide students into groups of five
to six. Have them read the case of Rachel (or, if you prefer, one of your own cases) and answer the
questions that follow.
RACHEL
Rachel is a 14-year-old with no prior history of psychological problems. She is dressed in
shorts, a sleeveless tee and combat boots. She was brought in by her mother with complaints of
“feeling bad.” She is irritable, sleeps poorly, eats little, and has lost 10 lbs. in the last few
months. She appears disinterested in many of the activities she previously enjoyed, such as
shopping with her mother. Instead, she lies around the house, communicates little with her
family, and appears to have little energy or self-direction.
What are your concerns, if any?
Which of Rachel’s behaviors seem normal? Explain.
What is contributing to Rachel’s overall pattern of behavior?
What additional information would you like to have? Why?
procedures and reasons for admission, release procedures, follow-up programs, and successes in
the neuropsychiatric program.
c. The Community Program—Ask a representative from a community program (city or
neighborhood) to come to class and describe the program to your students. This person could
represent a community mental health or mental retardation program, a work program for people
with mental retardation, an alcohol abuse program, or a group home.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Careers in mental health. Your students are probably interested in working with children at some
point, and many of them might plan a career in the field. It is often difficult to differentiate the roles
of the many mental health professionals who work with children. Many choices exist, depending on
one’s interests, training, and aptitude. Ask students to search the Internet for different career choices.
Some examples of careers are clinical, educational, counseling, or school psychologist; educational
therapist; psychiatric social worker; counselor; and psychiatric nurse. A good starting point is to find
the professional organization affiliated with the career (ex. psychologists -- www.apa.org; family
therapist -- American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy -- www.aamft.org).
2. Stigma. Even with cultural changes and diagnostic progress, stigma continues to plague the field of
mental health. A majority of disorders are underreported due to fear or embarrassment. Often parents
or guardians feel they will be viewed as “bad parents” or have “poor parenting skills” if their child is
diagnosed with a problem. Some even blame themselves for the onset of mental illness. In 1999 the
White House Conference on Mental Health called for a national anti-stigma campaign. Ask students
to read this summary (cited below) or find articles on current attitudes toward psychological
disorders, especially among children and adolescents. Do they think the campaign was successful?
Why or why not? If not, what specific ideas might they suggest (such as a media campaign) to change
people’s opinions? What populations would they target?
http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/generalspeeches/1999/19990607.html
3. What is normal? Presenting students with an actual case can be an excellent way to begin a class
period and quickly get your students involved in the day’s topic. Divide students into groups of five
to six. Have them read the case of Rachel (or, if you prefer, one of your own cases) and answer the
questions that follow.
RACHEL
Rachel is a 14-year-old with no prior history of psychological problems. She is dressed in
shorts, a sleeveless tee and combat boots. She was brought in by her mother with complaints of
“feeling bad.” She is irritable, sleeps poorly, eats little, and has lost 10 lbs. in the last few
months. She appears disinterested in many of the activities she previously enjoyed, such as
shopping with her mother. Instead, she lies around the house, communicates little with her
family, and appears to have little energy or self-direction.
What are your concerns, if any?
Which of Rachel’s behaviors seem normal? Explain.
What is contributing to Rachel’s overall pattern of behavior?
What additional information would you like to have? Why?
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4. As noted in the text, cultural and gender-based norms are important contributors to people’s
perceptions of the normality or abnormality of behavior. Encourage your students to think of ways in
which cultural norms contribute to these perceptions. For example, there are many subcultural groups
within society that would not think drinking a pint of whiskey and a six-pack of beer in one evening is
deviant, particularly when all of their relatives, friends, and acquaintances are engaging in the same
behavior. Then, have the class think about how gender norms affect what is regarded as normal or
abnormal. Prior to the 1970s, for example, promiscuity was taken for granted among males (“sowing
wild oats”), but the same behavior among females sent a stigmatized message about “loose” women
who “slept around.”
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
American Psychiatric Association. (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-
IV-TR (Text Revision). American Psychiatric Association (4th ed). Note that the DSM-V will eventually
be published; more information can be found here: http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx
Beers, C. (1908). A mind that found itself: An autobiography. University of Pittsburgh Press.
Beers, C. (1923). The mental hygiene movement. Doubleday.
Freud, S. (1946). The psychoanalytic treatment of children. Imago.
Freud, S. (1965). Abstracts of the standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund
Freud. International Universities Press.
House, A. E. (2002). DSM-IV diagnosis in the schools. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Karp, David A. (2001). The burden of sympathy: How families cope with mental illness. Oxford
University Press.
Rutter, M. & Smith, D.J. (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes.
New York: Wiley.
Research Articles
Adkins, D. E.; Daw, J. K.; McClay, J. L.; & van den Oord, Edwin J. C. G. (2012). The influence of five
monoamine genes on trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood.
Development and Psychopathology, Special issue: A Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on
Emotional Availability Research, 24(1), 267-285.
Rollock, D., & Gordon, E. W. (2000). Racism and mental health into the 21st century: Perspectives and
parameters. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 5-13.
Rutter, M., & Sroufe, A. (1999). Development and psychopathology: Concepts and challenges.
Development and Psychopathology, 12, 265-296.
Stewart, S. M.; Simmons, A.; & Habibpour, E. (2012). Treatment of culturally diverse children and
adolescents with depression. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 22(1), 72-79.
4. As noted in the text, cultural and gender-based norms are important contributors to people’s
perceptions of the normality or abnormality of behavior. Encourage your students to think of ways in
which cultural norms contribute to these perceptions. For example, there are many subcultural groups
within society that would not think drinking a pint of whiskey and a six-pack of beer in one evening is
deviant, particularly when all of their relatives, friends, and acquaintances are engaging in the same
behavior. Then, have the class think about how gender norms affect what is regarded as normal or
abnormal. Prior to the 1970s, for example, promiscuity was taken for granted among males (“sowing
wild oats”), but the same behavior among females sent a stigmatized message about “loose” women
who “slept around.”
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
American Psychiatric Association. (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-
IV-TR (Text Revision). American Psychiatric Association (4th ed). Note that the DSM-V will eventually
be published; more information can be found here: http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx
Beers, C. (1908). A mind that found itself: An autobiography. University of Pittsburgh Press.
Beers, C. (1923). The mental hygiene movement. Doubleday.
Freud, S. (1946). The psychoanalytic treatment of children. Imago.
Freud, S. (1965). Abstracts of the standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund
Freud. International Universities Press.
House, A. E. (2002). DSM-IV diagnosis in the schools. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Karp, David A. (2001). The burden of sympathy: How families cope with mental illness. Oxford
University Press.
Rutter, M. & Smith, D.J. (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes.
New York: Wiley.
Research Articles
Adkins, D. E.; Daw, J. K.; McClay, J. L.; & van den Oord, Edwin J. C. G. (2012). The influence of five
monoamine genes on trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood.
Development and Psychopathology, Special issue: A Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on
Emotional Availability Research, 24(1), 267-285.
Rollock, D., & Gordon, E. W. (2000). Racism and mental health into the 21st century: Perspectives and
parameters. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 5-13.
Rutter, M., & Sroufe, A. (1999). Development and psychopathology: Concepts and challenges.
Development and Psychopathology, 12, 265-296.
Stewart, S. M.; Simmons, A.; & Habibpour, E. (2012). Treatment of culturally diverse children and
adolescents with depression. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 22(1), 72-79.
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Media Resources
Fitting In or Standing Out? Conformity in Childhood (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).
As children begin school and other new experiences, what happens to the values, behavior, and
expectations they have learned at home? Why do so many young people follow the crowd? And when
does conformity become a bad thing? This program explores those questions, visiting a group of 25
seven-year-olds who are learning to cope with peer groups and situations.
Inside the Teenage Brain (2001)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).
There are many mysteries in life: What happens after we die? If a tree falls in the forest and no one is
around, does it make a sound? Why do teenagers act in the inexplicable ways they do? This film
tackles that last question and might set the stage for many of the discussions you’ll have throughout
the semester.
When the Bough Breaks (1995)
Fifth Estate Series (72 min).
A baby boy does not sleep through the night; a toddler stays up all night, too, and screams if her
parents leave the house. Another little girl will not eat. Therapy sessions with the three young
children are shown.
Young Dr. Freud: 1. Struggling with the Demon (2002)
PBS (57 min).
This PBS documentary chronicles Freud’s life from his birth in 1856 and his concepts about identity,
memory, childhood and sexuality, and psychoanalysis.
Speaking Out: Video Interviews with People Who Struggle with Psychological Disorders
Volume 3 - DVD 1
Mental Health and the Law
Interview: Shannon - Intimate Violence and Self-Defense (run time: 13:43)
Day-In-The-Life - Shannon (run time: 5:46)
WEB LINKS
American Psychological Association: www.apa.org
American Psychological Society: www.psychologicalscience.org
American Psychiatric Association: www.psychiatry.org/
Erik Erikson: www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm
Internet Mental Health: www.mentalhealth.com
Mental Help Net: www. mentalhelp.net
National Association of the Mentally Ill (NAMI): www.nami.org
National Institutes of Mental Health: www.nimh.nih.gov
Media Resources
Fitting In or Standing Out? Conformity in Childhood (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).
As children begin school and other new experiences, what happens to the values, behavior, and
expectations they have learned at home? Why do so many young people follow the crowd? And when
does conformity become a bad thing? This program explores those questions, visiting a group of 25
seven-year-olds who are learning to cope with peer groups and situations.
Inside the Teenage Brain (2001)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min).
There are many mysteries in life: What happens after we die? If a tree falls in the forest and no one is
around, does it make a sound? Why do teenagers act in the inexplicable ways they do? This film
tackles that last question and might set the stage for many of the discussions you’ll have throughout
the semester.
When the Bough Breaks (1995)
Fifth Estate Series (72 min).
A baby boy does not sleep through the night; a toddler stays up all night, too, and screams if her
parents leave the house. Another little girl will not eat. Therapy sessions with the three young
children are shown.
Young Dr. Freud: 1. Struggling with the Demon (2002)
PBS (57 min).
This PBS documentary chronicles Freud’s life from his birth in 1856 and his concepts about identity,
memory, childhood and sexuality, and psychoanalysis.
Speaking Out: Video Interviews with People Who Struggle with Psychological Disorders
Volume 3 - DVD 1
Mental Health and the Law
Interview: Shannon - Intimate Violence and Self-Defense (run time: 13:43)
Day-In-The-Life - Shannon (run time: 5:46)
WEB LINKS
American Psychological Association: www.apa.org
American Psychological Society: www.psychologicalscience.org
American Psychiatric Association: www.psychiatry.org/
Erik Erikson: www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm
Internet Mental Health: www.mentalhealth.com
Mental Help Net: www. mentalhelp.net
National Association of the Mentally Ill (NAMI): www.nami.org
National Institutes of Mental Health: www.nimh.nih.gov
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8
National Mental Health Association (NMHA): www.nmha.org
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: www.samhsa.gov
Today in the History of Psychology: www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html
National Mental Health Association (NMHA): www.nmha.org
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: www.samhsa.gov
Today in the History of Psychology: www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html
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CHAPTER 2
THE DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Parents, teachers, or other caregivers who are concerned by a child’s unusual or disturbing behavior often
seek help to better understand the behavior and determine its cause. Researchers and clinicians, too, have
struggled with how a child’s behavior should be conceptualized and explained.
Today, we recognize that to have more than a superficial understanding of a problem, it is necessary to
have a set of organizing principles or framework within which to place our observations. Most clinicians
begin with a theoretical formulation to guide them, although there are numerous factors potentially
involved in psychopathology.
Currently, the developmental psychopathology perspective offers a rigorous and influential approach to
the study of behavioral disorders. This approach uses normal development to inform us about abnormal
behavior. It emphasizes the role of developmental processes, context, situation, and the influences of
multiple and interacting events in shaping healthy or maladaptive development. Rather than imposing a
specific theoretical explanation, it offers a way of integrating various approaches or microparadigms
within a developmental psychopathology framework.
Even though children’s problems have a variety of causes, all have in common a failure to effectively
master or complete a developmental milestone. Sometimes a sufficient cause will produce a disorder, but
generally, it requires sufficient, necessary, and contributing forces in combination to produce the
outcome. Along the developmental pathway of the growing child, a temporal relationship exists between
the sequence and timing of particular behaviors. This relationship can be moderated by characteristics of
the child or the environment. Age, gender, or sensitivity to the environment can have supportive or
detrimental influences on the child as illustrated by the principles of equifinality and multifinality.
Equifinality suggests that diverse paths or factors can be associated with the same outcome. In other
words, children can travel different pathways or have different experiences yet develop the same
behavioral problems. Multifinality suggests that, depending on other factors, children may have the same
kind of experience yet end up with different problems or no difficulties at all. Factors such as risk,
vulnerability, and resilience will also contribute to the appearance or absence of a disorder. Risk increases
the chance of psychological difficulties or impairments. Developmental risk factors include constitutional,
family, emotional, interpersonal, intellectual, and ecological elements, as well as unusual nonnormative
stressful life events. In the presence of adverse conditions, some individuals will be resilient, whereas
others will respond with maladaptive patterns that leave them vulnerable to the onset of psychopathology.
Despite being at risk for the disorder, resilience, or the ability to avoid negative outcomes, increases the
likelihood the child will not develop the disorder. Although resilience may include many factors, they can
be summarized into three broad categories or protective factors: individual characteristics or personal
attributes, family influences, and extra-familial support. A central tenet of behavioral disturbance is its
stability over time. Although variation in stability is observed, it cannot be assumed that most children
outgrow psychopathology.
CHAPTER 2
THE DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Parents, teachers, or other caregivers who are concerned by a child’s unusual or disturbing behavior often
seek help to better understand the behavior and determine its cause. Researchers and clinicians, too, have
struggled with how a child’s behavior should be conceptualized and explained.
Today, we recognize that to have more than a superficial understanding of a problem, it is necessary to
have a set of organizing principles or framework within which to place our observations. Most clinicians
begin with a theoretical formulation to guide them, although there are numerous factors potentially
involved in psychopathology.
Currently, the developmental psychopathology perspective offers a rigorous and influential approach to
the study of behavioral disorders. This approach uses normal development to inform us about abnormal
behavior. It emphasizes the role of developmental processes, context, situation, and the influences of
multiple and interacting events in shaping healthy or maladaptive development. Rather than imposing a
specific theoretical explanation, it offers a way of integrating various approaches or microparadigms
within a developmental psychopathology framework.
Even though children’s problems have a variety of causes, all have in common a failure to effectively
master or complete a developmental milestone. Sometimes a sufficient cause will produce a disorder, but
generally, it requires sufficient, necessary, and contributing forces in combination to produce the
outcome. Along the developmental pathway of the growing child, a temporal relationship exists between
the sequence and timing of particular behaviors. This relationship can be moderated by characteristics of
the child or the environment. Age, gender, or sensitivity to the environment can have supportive or
detrimental influences on the child as illustrated by the principles of equifinality and multifinality.
Equifinality suggests that diverse paths or factors can be associated with the same outcome. In other
words, children can travel different pathways or have different experiences yet develop the same
behavioral problems. Multifinality suggests that, depending on other factors, children may have the same
kind of experience yet end up with different problems or no difficulties at all. Factors such as risk,
vulnerability, and resilience will also contribute to the appearance or absence of a disorder. Risk increases
the chance of psychological difficulties or impairments. Developmental risk factors include constitutional,
family, emotional, interpersonal, intellectual, and ecological elements, as well as unusual nonnormative
stressful life events. In the presence of adverse conditions, some individuals will be resilient, whereas
others will respond with maladaptive patterns that leave them vulnerable to the onset of psychopathology.
Despite being at risk for the disorder, resilience, or the ability to avoid negative outcomes, increases the
likelihood the child will not develop the disorder. Although resilience may include many factors, they can
be summarized into three broad categories or protective factors: individual characteristics or personal
attributes, family influences, and extra-familial support. A central tenet of behavioral disturbance is its
stability over time. Although variation in stability is observed, it cannot be assumed that most children
outgrow psychopathology.
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10
There are times when a less-than-optimal developmental outcome occurs within the context of normal
development. Four primary areas within normal development where problems might occur include early
attachment, temperament style, emotional regulation, and social cognitive processing. Inherent in all four
topics is the assumption that development is based on the interaction of both biological and experiential
factors with the child.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
PERSPECTIVES THEORIES, MODELS
Theories
Models
THE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE: AN OVERVIEW
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
SEARCHING FOR CAUSAL FACTORS AND PROCESSES
PATHWAYS OF DEVELOPMENT
Equifinality and Multifinality
RISK, VULNERABILITY, AND RESILIENCE
Risk and Vulnerability
Resilience
CONTINUITY OF DISORDER
NORMAL DEVELOPMENT, PROBLEMATIC OUTCOMES
Attachment
Temperament
Emotion and Its Regulation
Understanding and Regulation
Social Cognitive Processing
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
There are times when a less-than-optimal developmental outcome occurs within the context of normal
development. Four primary areas within normal development where problems might occur include early
attachment, temperament style, emotional regulation, and social cognitive processing. Inherent in all four
topics is the assumption that development is based on the interaction of both biological and experiential
factors with the child.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
PERSPECTIVES THEORIES, MODELS
Theories
Models
THE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE: AN OVERVIEW
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
SEARCHING FOR CAUSAL FACTORS AND PROCESSES
PATHWAYS OF DEVELOPMENT
Equifinality and Multifinality
RISK, VULNERABILITY, AND RESILIENCE
Risk and Vulnerability
Resilience
CONTINUITY OF DISORDER
NORMAL DEVELOPMENT, PROBLEMATIC OUTCOMES
Attachment
Temperament
Emotion and Its Regulation
Understanding and Regulation
Social Cognitive Processing
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ Paradigms, theories, and models in the study of psychopathology
➢ The developmental psychopathology perspective
➢ The concept of development
➢ How causation is variously conceptualized
➢ Pathways of development
➢ Aspects of risk, vulnerability, and resilience
➢ Continuity and change in psychological disorders
➢ Examples of how normal and abnormal development go hand in hand
KEY TERMS
paradigm (p. 20)
theory (p. 20)
interactional models (p. 20)
vulnerability-stress model (p. 20)
transactional models (p. 21)
systems models (p. 21)
developmental psychopathology perspective (p. 21)
development (p. 21)
medical model (p. 22)
direct effect, indirect effect (p. 22)
mediator (p. 22)
moderator (p. 22)
necessary, sufficient, contributing causes (p. 22)
equifinality (p. 24)
multifinality (p.25)
risks (p. 25)
vulnerability (p. 26)
resilience (p. 27)
developmental tasks (p. 27)
heterotypic, homotypic continuity (p. 29)
attachment (p. 30)
secure, insecure, disorganized attachment (p. 30)
temperament (p. 31)
goodness-of-fit (p. 31)
differential susceptibility hypothesis (p. 33)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ Paradigms, theories, and models in the study of psychopathology
➢ The developmental psychopathology perspective
➢ The concept of development
➢ How causation is variously conceptualized
➢ Pathways of development
➢ Aspects of risk, vulnerability, and resilience
➢ Continuity and change in psychological disorders
➢ Examples of how normal and abnormal development go hand in hand
KEY TERMS
paradigm (p. 20)
theory (p. 20)
interactional models (p. 20)
vulnerability-stress model (p. 20)
transactional models (p. 21)
systems models (p. 21)
developmental psychopathology perspective (p. 21)
development (p. 21)
medical model (p. 22)
direct effect, indirect effect (p. 22)
mediator (p. 22)
moderator (p. 22)
necessary, sufficient, contributing causes (p. 22)
equifinality (p. 24)
multifinality (p.25)
risks (p. 25)
vulnerability (p. 26)
resilience (p. 27)
developmental tasks (p. 27)
heterotypic, homotypic continuity (p. 29)
attachment (p. 30)
secure, insecure, disorganized attachment (p. 30)
temperament (p. 31)
goodness-of-fit (p. 31)
differential susceptibility hypothesis (p. 33)
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emotion (p. 33)
social cognitive processing (p. 34)
emotion (p. 33)
social cognitive processing (p. 34)
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13
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Chapter 2 begins with a review of perspectives, theories, and models. Even those students who are
psychology majors will benefit from some additional discussion of these concepts. One potentially
interesting strategy is to present the concepts of perspectives, theories, and models with the analogy
of a filing cabinet. As research findings are accumulated, perspectives are developed. When a
perspective is shared by investigators, it becomes a paradigm. New files are created in the filing
cabinet. Related to the development of perspectives is theory construction. When new theories are
created, relevant files are moved within that category. This mirrors the definition of a theory: a
formal, integrated set of principles or propositions that explains phenomena. Models are
representations or descriptions of the phenomenon under study. Models may be viewed as additional
files in the filing cabinet, further helping to organize the researcher’s thinking surrounding a
particular topic under investigation.
2. Who's Watching the Kids? Effects of Nonparental Child Care on Development. Discuss with your
students the effects of daycare on infant attachment. One of the biggest changes in childcare during
the past several decades has been in non-parental daycare. More children now receive early childhood
care in this manner than in any other way. This dramatic change has led to research on the potential
impact of daycare on children’s overall well-being. One area that received much attention was the
potential negative impact on the infant-caregiver attachment. Extensive research has led most experts
to conclude that daycare, in and of itself, does not affect attachment, but this research did indicate that
certain factors might increase the insecure attachment risk among some children. Students may be
directed to the following website, where they will find many interesting articles and commentaries on
daycare: www.daycare.com.
3. Discuss the ethical dilemmas that would likely occur in the following situations:
➢ A mother finds that her unborn child has a chromosomal disorder, and therefore the child will
not live a "normal" life.
➢ A young woman discovers that she is carrying genes that greatly increase her risk for breast
cancer. Will her insurance company cancel her policy? Should she consider a mastectomy as a
prevention measure even though her risk for developing the cancer is less than one hundred
percent?
➢ In the future, through genetic analysis, the prediction of certain illnesses may be possible.
Should this information be provided to prospective employers? Should the prerequisite of a
genetic analysis be present in certain types of employment? Could individuals be assured that
these genetic records would remain confidential? Could this lead to discrimination?
➢ If genetic research clearly demonstrates the genetic etiology of certain disorders, should
individuals who carry these genetic defects (that could be passed on to children) be allowed to
reproduce?
➢ Should individuals in our society be forced to undergo genetic testing? Under what conditions
should it be allowed? Does this violate a person's right to privacy?
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Chapter 2 begins with a review of perspectives, theories, and models. Even those students who are
psychology majors will benefit from some additional discussion of these concepts. One potentially
interesting strategy is to present the concepts of perspectives, theories, and models with the analogy
of a filing cabinet. As research findings are accumulated, perspectives are developed. When a
perspective is shared by investigators, it becomes a paradigm. New files are created in the filing
cabinet. Related to the development of perspectives is theory construction. When new theories are
created, relevant files are moved within that category. This mirrors the definition of a theory: a
formal, integrated set of principles or propositions that explains phenomena. Models are
representations or descriptions of the phenomenon under study. Models may be viewed as additional
files in the filing cabinet, further helping to organize the researcher’s thinking surrounding a
particular topic under investigation.
2. Who's Watching the Kids? Effects of Nonparental Child Care on Development. Discuss with your
students the effects of daycare on infant attachment. One of the biggest changes in childcare during
the past several decades has been in non-parental daycare. More children now receive early childhood
care in this manner than in any other way. This dramatic change has led to research on the potential
impact of daycare on children’s overall well-being. One area that received much attention was the
potential negative impact on the infant-caregiver attachment. Extensive research has led most experts
to conclude that daycare, in and of itself, does not affect attachment, but this research did indicate that
certain factors might increase the insecure attachment risk among some children. Students may be
directed to the following website, where they will find many interesting articles and commentaries on
daycare: www.daycare.com.
3. Discuss the ethical dilemmas that would likely occur in the following situations:
➢ A mother finds that her unborn child has a chromosomal disorder, and therefore the child will
not live a "normal" life.
➢ A young woman discovers that she is carrying genes that greatly increase her risk for breast
cancer. Will her insurance company cancel her policy? Should she consider a mastectomy as a
prevention measure even though her risk for developing the cancer is less than one hundred
percent?
➢ In the future, through genetic analysis, the prediction of certain illnesses may be possible.
Should this information be provided to prospective employers? Should the prerequisite of a
genetic analysis be present in certain types of employment? Could individuals be assured that
these genetic records would remain confidential? Could this lead to discrimination?
➢ If genetic research clearly demonstrates the genetic etiology of certain disorders, should
individuals who carry these genetic defects (that could be passed on to children) be allowed to
reproduce?
➢ Should individuals in our society be forced to undergo genetic testing? Under what conditions
should it be allowed? Does this violate a person's right to privacy?
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STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Should the courts or the parents make the ultimate decision for medical treatment of children? The
case of Kate Wernecke (a 12-year-old Texan who was taken from her parents and placed in foster
care in order to receive radiation treatment for her Hodgkin's disease) addresses this question. How
do you feel about the state overriding the parents in deciding the best course of treatment for a child?
In this case, the child has a type of cancer that has a high rate of cure with the combinations of
treatment that the doctors wished to pursue.
2. Attachment Lecture. Opportunities for the students to learn about attachment theory come from the
links given below. You may want to discuss the topic in class in some detail or ask students to gather
their own information. Below are links to some articles on attachment:
This is a link to a very detailed description of the life and works of Mary Ainsworth.
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/g2602/0000/2602000016/print.jhtml
This is a link providing a great description of the basic types of attachments.
http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm
This is an informative site with a discussion of infants and the emotion of anger.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/102/5/SE1/1268
3. Divide your students into small groups. Each group will be charged with developing a simple model
for the concept of development (students are instructed to review the textbook’s discussion of
development). Among the models that the groups might explore are interactional, transactional, and
systems.
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.
Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D.J. (1995). Developmental psychopathology. New York: John Wiley.
Fallon, A. E., & Brabender, V. M. (2012). A secure connection: The tethering of attachment and good-
enough maternal care. In S. Akhtar, (Ed.), The mother and her child: Clinical aspects of attachment,
separation, and loss. (p. 15-43). Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.
Readings
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S.M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the
behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49-67.
Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
15, 9-52.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Should the courts or the parents make the ultimate decision for medical treatment of children? The
case of Kate Wernecke (a 12-year-old Texan who was taken from her parents and placed in foster
care in order to receive radiation treatment for her Hodgkin's disease) addresses this question. How
do you feel about the state overriding the parents in deciding the best course of treatment for a child?
In this case, the child has a type of cancer that has a high rate of cure with the combinations of
treatment that the doctors wished to pursue.
2. Attachment Lecture. Opportunities for the students to learn about attachment theory come from the
links given below. You may want to discuss the topic in class in some detail or ask students to gather
their own information. Below are links to some articles on attachment:
This is a link to a very detailed description of the life and works of Mary Ainsworth.
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/g2602/0000/2602000016/print.jhtml
This is a link providing a great description of the basic types of attachments.
http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm
This is an informative site with a discussion of infants and the emotion of anger.
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/102/5/SE1/1268
3. Divide your students into small groups. Each group will be charged with developing a simple model
for the concept of development (students are instructed to review the textbook’s discussion of
development). Among the models that the groups might explore are interactional, transactional, and
systems.
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.
Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D.J. (1995). Developmental psychopathology. New York: John Wiley.
Fallon, A. E., & Brabender, V. M. (2012). A secure connection: The tethering of attachment and good-
enough maternal care. In S. Akhtar, (Ed.), The mother and her child: Clinical aspects of attachment,
separation, and loss. (p. 15-43). Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.
Readings
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S.M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the
behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49-67.
Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
15, 9-52.
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15
Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1977). Temperamental individuality from childhood to adolescence. Journal of
American Academy or Child Psychiatry, 16, 218-226.
Green, J., & Goldwyn, R. (2002). Attachment disorganization and psychopathology: New findings in
attachment research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, 835-846.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56,
227-238.
Media Resources
7 Up - 14 Up - 21 Up - 28 Up - 35 Up - 42 Up – 49 Up (various years)
PBS (7 parts; varying lengths)
Noted director Michael Apted has followed the lives of two groups of British school children: those
“to the manor born,” and those of the working class. Starting from age 7 (in 1964) and continuing
through adulthood, we glimpse the changes their lives have undergone. Later films contain clips
from earlier films; these are a “must-see.”
Child of Our Time: A Year-by-Year Study of Childhood Development (2007)
BBC (11 parts; 60 min each)
In the year 2000, producers at the BBC began documenting the growth and development of 25
newborn children from a wide range of social, ethnic, and geographical backgrounds. This 11-part
series shows viewers the results so far, capturing pivotal stages in each child’s learning process,
manner of socialization, and physical development.
Grief: A Peril in Infancy (1940s)
University of Akron (24 min).
Renee Spitz's original footage of children in institutional environments is presented. The 1940s study
highlights how grief impacted the physical and emotional life of children.
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (35 min).
This film gives a solid overview of attachment theory, focusing on the work of its primary proponent.
This is a solid introduction to a perspective that dominates the field of child and adolescent
development.
WEB LINKS
American Academy of Pediatrics: www.aap.org
Child Trends: www.childtrends.org
Children, Youth, and Family Consortium (CYFC): www.cyfc.umn.edu
Children's Institute International: www.childrensinstitute.org
ChildStats: America's Children: www.childstats.gov
ChildTrauma: www.childtrauma.org
Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1977). Temperamental individuality from childhood to adolescence. Journal of
American Academy or Child Psychiatry, 16, 218-226.
Green, J., & Goldwyn, R. (2002). Attachment disorganization and psychopathology: New findings in
attachment research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, 835-846.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56,
227-238.
Media Resources
7 Up - 14 Up - 21 Up - 28 Up - 35 Up - 42 Up – 49 Up (various years)
PBS (7 parts; varying lengths)
Noted director Michael Apted has followed the lives of two groups of British school children: those
“to the manor born,” and those of the working class. Starting from age 7 (in 1964) and continuing
through adulthood, we glimpse the changes their lives have undergone. Later films contain clips
from earlier films; these are a “must-see.”
Child of Our Time: A Year-by-Year Study of Childhood Development (2007)
BBC (11 parts; 60 min each)
In the year 2000, producers at the BBC began documenting the growth and development of 25
newborn children from a wide range of social, ethnic, and geographical backgrounds. This 11-part
series shows viewers the results so far, capturing pivotal stages in each child’s learning process,
manner of socialization, and physical development.
Grief: A Peril in Infancy (1940s)
University of Akron (24 min).
Renee Spitz's original footage of children in institutional environments is presented. The 1940s study
highlights how grief impacted the physical and emotional life of children.
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (35 min).
This film gives a solid overview of attachment theory, focusing on the work of its primary proponent.
This is a solid introduction to a perspective that dominates the field of child and adolescent
development.
WEB LINKS
American Academy of Pediatrics: www.aap.org
Child Trends: www.childtrends.org
Children, Youth, and Family Consortium (CYFC): www.cyfc.umn.edu
Children's Institute International: www.childrensinstitute.org
ChildStats: America's Children: www.childstats.gov
ChildTrauma: www.childtrauma.org
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CHAPTER 3
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTEXTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
CHAPTER SUMMARY
From the moment of conception, development is influenced by multiple interacting factors and processes.
Therefore, any risk factors for psychopathology must be considered within the biological and
environmental contexts of development. This chapter provides an overview of each of the major
influences on development -- biological, learning and cognitive, and sociocultural -- with an emphasis on
how each influence can contribute to behavioral problems.
Biological forces are often at the forefront of development. The influence of biology, in many ways, lays
the groundwork for a child’s future. It can set in motion a series of changes that put a child at risk or that
optimize his or her opportunities for growth. Prenatal influences – such as maternal stress, poor prenatal
care, substance abuse, malnutrition, exposure to teratogenic agents, and other possible dangerous
conditions -- are all potentially harmful factors that can have a major impact on the developing embryo
and fetus. Structural anomalies, insults to various brain regions, problems in neurotransmission or neuro-
transmitters, and abnormal development or functioning of the nervous systems are all factors that can put
a child at risk. Perinatal influences -- including medication given to the mother during labor, unusual
delivery, and anoxia -- may result in neurological problems in the newborn. Postnatal damage may occur
as a result of accidents, illness, malnutrition, and exposure to harmful agents. The ability of the young to
recover from brain insults is unpredictable. Whereas plasticity is obviously beneficial, early damage to the
developing brain can interfere with subsequent development.
Some genetic processes can produce structural defects or errors in chromosomes. Genetic influences
occur through single-gene inheritance (Tay-Sachs, Huntington’s, sickle-cell anemia) and multigenetic
process. These influences are studied through a variety of methods including adoption, twin and family
methods, and molecular analyses. Genes and the environment collaborate with each other through gene-
environment interactions and gene-environment correlations. Inheritance (along with shared and
nonshared environmental effects) has been identified in many behavioral disorders. Gene-environment
correlations remind us that a child’s experiences are not independent of genetic influences.
Learning and cognition are closely interwoven with development. Through learning and cognition,
children continuously take in information and think about the world. The models of classical
conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning share the assumption that behavior is learned.
A problem behavior can be changed through a learning process that can lead to both the acquisition of a
new behavior and the removal of the problematic behavior. Approaches to cognition focus on how
individuals mentally process information, perceive, construct and store their perceptions, and how they
think and act according to this information.
The sociocultural context of development consists of overlapping and interacting domains of influences
that include family, peers, community, societal, and cultural influences. Development, whether adaptive
or maladaptive, occurs within this system and is also influenced by this system. The ecological model
(ecology refers to the interrelationship of organisms and their environment) conceptualizes the young as
CHAPTER 3
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTEXTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
CHAPTER SUMMARY
From the moment of conception, development is influenced by multiple interacting factors and processes.
Therefore, any risk factors for psychopathology must be considered within the biological and
environmental contexts of development. This chapter provides an overview of each of the major
influences on development -- biological, learning and cognitive, and sociocultural -- with an emphasis on
how each influence can contribute to behavioral problems.
Biological forces are often at the forefront of development. The influence of biology, in many ways, lays
the groundwork for a child’s future. It can set in motion a series of changes that put a child at risk or that
optimize his or her opportunities for growth. Prenatal influences – such as maternal stress, poor prenatal
care, substance abuse, malnutrition, exposure to teratogenic agents, and other possible dangerous
conditions -- are all potentially harmful factors that can have a major impact on the developing embryo
and fetus. Structural anomalies, insults to various brain regions, problems in neurotransmission or neuro-
transmitters, and abnormal development or functioning of the nervous systems are all factors that can put
a child at risk. Perinatal influences -- including medication given to the mother during labor, unusual
delivery, and anoxia -- may result in neurological problems in the newborn. Postnatal damage may occur
as a result of accidents, illness, malnutrition, and exposure to harmful agents. The ability of the young to
recover from brain insults is unpredictable. Whereas plasticity is obviously beneficial, early damage to the
developing brain can interfere with subsequent development.
Some genetic processes can produce structural defects or errors in chromosomes. Genetic influences
occur through single-gene inheritance (Tay-Sachs, Huntington’s, sickle-cell anemia) and multigenetic
process. These influences are studied through a variety of methods including adoption, twin and family
methods, and molecular analyses. Genes and the environment collaborate with each other through gene-
environment interactions and gene-environment correlations. Inheritance (along with shared and
nonshared environmental effects) has been identified in many behavioral disorders. Gene-environment
correlations remind us that a child’s experiences are not independent of genetic influences.
Learning and cognition are closely interwoven with development. Through learning and cognition,
children continuously take in information and think about the world. The models of classical
conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning share the assumption that behavior is learned.
A problem behavior can be changed through a learning process that can lead to both the acquisition of a
new behavior and the removal of the problematic behavior. Approaches to cognition focus on how
individuals mentally process information, perceive, construct and store their perceptions, and how they
think and act according to this information.
The sociocultural context of development consists of overlapping and interacting domains of influences
that include family, peers, community, societal, and cultural influences. Development, whether adaptive
or maladaptive, occurs within this system and is also influenced by this system. The ecological model
(ecology refers to the interrelationship of organisms and their environment) conceptualizes the young as
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embedded within and interacting with numerous domains of overlapping, transactional environmental
influences. Family influence, most prominent during childhood when developmental malleability is high,
also may endure over the entire life span. Family interaction is complex, with caregivers taking on many
roles. The quality of the relationship between parents and their offspring is best fostered through an
authoritative, warm parenting style.
Maltreatment of youth can be thought of as an extreme failure to provide adequate parenting. It can also
be viewed as a failure of the larger social system to provide conditions that foster adequate parenting.
Such undue failure to protect the child and/or provide positive aspects of parenting might be expected to
adversely affect a wide variety of developmental processes and increase the risk for a variety of
problematic outcomes.
Since the late 1970s, the problems of abuse and maltreatment have become both a major public concern
and the focus of increased research and professional attention. Multiple, interrelated, and complex
determinants -- such as characteristics of the abuser, characteristics of the child, parenting practices,
parent-child interactional processes, and sociocultural influences -- contribute to these problems. The
socio-cultural context includes the immediate social environment (e.g., family employment, extended
family, social networks) and the larger societal-cultural context (e.g., poverty, societal tolerance for
violence). Sadly, parents or parent surrogates are the most likely perpetrators of abuse, although the
majority of maltreated children do not perpetuate an intergenerational cycle. There is some evidence that
early maltreatment may be associated with neurobiological outcomes and alteration of structural and
functional regions of the brain, as well as cognitive and psychosocial difficulties, health-related problems,
and appreciable impairments in all early developmental domains and later adjustment. In all cases, the
basic developmental processes of children in abusive homes are disrupted by maltreatment.
The family has often been assumed to consist of two parents and their children living together in the
home. In fact, families have always been varied. Even so, dramatic changes have occurred in family
structure during the last several decades in the United States and other Westernized countries. Divorce is
a particularly complex process of family transitions that heightens developmental risk, and its effects on
children depend on multiple variables. One of the many reasons that family factors affect the development
of behavior and behavioral problems is their influence on peer relationships. Poor peer relationships in
childhood are associated with both childhood problems and later problem behavior.
Low socioeconomic status and the poverty associated with it disadvantage children in many facets of
development. Poor children are exposed to multiple physical and psychosocial risks, including fewer
enriched school opportunities and reduced motivation for learning and achievement. Poor neighborhoods
also are a risk factor for reduced academic performance, mental health, and other aspects of development.
Neighborhood influences may operate through community resources, family relationships, and social
organization to maintain order.
Finally, within a broad cultural context, behavior can be shaped in ways that are maladaptive for young
people. Risk may be particularly high for individuals whose ethnic or racial background is other than
mainstream. Factors such as involuntary acculturation and early experiences with prejudice, racism, and
discrimination can have an impact on a child's early self-concept and emotional well-being.
Unfortunately, minority group members often experience disadvantages in seeking and receiving
appropriate treatment for behavioral problems.
embedded within and interacting with numerous domains of overlapping, transactional environmental
influences. Family influence, most prominent during childhood when developmental malleability is high,
also may endure over the entire life span. Family interaction is complex, with caregivers taking on many
roles. The quality of the relationship between parents and their offspring is best fostered through an
authoritative, warm parenting style.
Maltreatment of youth can be thought of as an extreme failure to provide adequate parenting. It can also
be viewed as a failure of the larger social system to provide conditions that foster adequate parenting.
Such undue failure to protect the child and/or provide positive aspects of parenting might be expected to
adversely affect a wide variety of developmental processes and increase the risk for a variety of
problematic outcomes.
Since the late 1970s, the problems of abuse and maltreatment have become both a major public concern
and the focus of increased research and professional attention. Multiple, interrelated, and complex
determinants -- such as characteristics of the abuser, characteristics of the child, parenting practices,
parent-child interactional processes, and sociocultural influences -- contribute to these problems. The
socio-cultural context includes the immediate social environment (e.g., family employment, extended
family, social networks) and the larger societal-cultural context (e.g., poverty, societal tolerance for
violence). Sadly, parents or parent surrogates are the most likely perpetrators of abuse, although the
majority of maltreated children do not perpetuate an intergenerational cycle. There is some evidence that
early maltreatment may be associated with neurobiological outcomes and alteration of structural and
functional regions of the brain, as well as cognitive and psychosocial difficulties, health-related problems,
and appreciable impairments in all early developmental domains and later adjustment. In all cases, the
basic developmental processes of children in abusive homes are disrupted by maltreatment.
The family has often been assumed to consist of two parents and their children living together in the
home. In fact, families have always been varied. Even so, dramatic changes have occurred in family
structure during the last several decades in the United States and other Westernized countries. Divorce is
a particularly complex process of family transitions that heightens developmental risk, and its effects on
children depend on multiple variables. One of the many reasons that family factors affect the development
of behavior and behavioral problems is their influence on peer relationships. Poor peer relationships in
childhood are associated with both childhood problems and later problem behavior.
Low socioeconomic status and the poverty associated with it disadvantage children in many facets of
development. Poor children are exposed to multiple physical and psychosocial risks, including fewer
enriched school opportunities and reduced motivation for learning and achievement. Poor neighborhoods
also are a risk factor for reduced academic performance, mental health, and other aspects of development.
Neighborhood influences may operate through community resources, family relationships, and social
organization to maintain order.
Finally, within a broad cultural context, behavior can be shaped in ways that are maladaptive for young
people. Risk may be particularly high for individuals whose ethnic or racial background is other than
mainstream. Factors such as involuntary acculturation and early experiences with prejudice, racism, and
discrimination can have an impact on a child's early self-concept and emotional well-being.
Unfortunately, minority group members often experience disadvantages in seeking and receiving
appropriate treatment for behavioral problems.
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CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain Development: Biology and Experience
Structure
Neurotransmission
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND RISK FOR DISORDERED FUNCTIONING
Prenatal Influences
Perinatal and Postnatal Influences
GENETIC CONTEXT
Single-Gene Inheritance
Multiple-Gene Inheritance: Quantitative Methods
Searching for Genes and Their Effects: Molecular Methods
Gene-Environment Interplay
LEARNING AND COGNITION
Classical Conditioning
Operant Learning
Observational Learning
Cognitive Processes
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT: AN OVERVIEW
FAMILY CONTEXT, MALTREATMENT, AND DIVORCE
Parent Roles, Styles, Psychopathology
Parental Roles
Parenting Styles
Parent Psychopathology
Maltreatment
Defining Maltreatment
Factors Contributing to Maltreatment
Consequences of Maltreatment
Changes in Family Structure: Divorce
Heightened Risk
Predictors of Adjustment
PEER INFLUENCES
COMMUNITY AND SOCIETAL CONTEXTS
School Influences
Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Neighborhoods
Culture, Ethnicity, and Minority Status
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain Development: Biology and Experience
Structure
Neurotransmission
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND RISK FOR DISORDERED FUNCTIONING
Prenatal Influences
Perinatal and Postnatal Influences
GENETIC CONTEXT
Single-Gene Inheritance
Multiple-Gene Inheritance: Quantitative Methods
Searching for Genes and Their Effects: Molecular Methods
Gene-Environment Interplay
LEARNING AND COGNITION
Classical Conditioning
Operant Learning
Observational Learning
Cognitive Processes
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT: AN OVERVIEW
FAMILY CONTEXT, MALTREATMENT, AND DIVORCE
Parent Roles, Styles, Psychopathology
Parental Roles
Parenting Styles
Parent Psychopathology
Maltreatment
Defining Maltreatment
Factors Contributing to Maltreatment
Consequences of Maltreatment
Changes in Family Structure: Divorce
Heightened Risk
Predictors of Adjustment
PEER INFLUENCES
COMMUNITY AND SOCIETAL CONTEXTS
School Influences
Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Neighborhoods
Culture, Ethnicity, and Minority Status
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ Brain and nervous system development, structure, and function
➢ Pre-, peri-, and postnatal risks to the nervous system
➢ The genetic context of development, including genetic research
➢ Basic learning/cognitive processes and their role in development
➢ An ecological model of sociocultural influences on development
➢ The family context of development, including maltreatment and divorce
➢ Influences of peers on development
➢ Community and societal contexts of development
KEY TERMS
neurons (p. 37)
myelin (p. 38)
pruning (p. 38)
central nervous system (p. 38)
peripheral nervous system (p. 38)
endocrine system (p. 38)
hindbrain (p. 38)
midbrain, forebrain (p. 39)
cell body, dendrites, axon (p. 39)
synapse (p. 39)
neurotransmitters (p. 39)
teratogens (p. 40)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (p. 40)
plasticity (p. 41)
chromosomes (p. 41)
DNA (p. 41)
genes (p. 41)
behavior genetics (p. 41)
transcription (p. 42)
translation (p. 42)
epigenetics (p. 42)
genotype, phenotype (p. 43)
dominant genes, recessive genes (p. 43)
index case, proband (p. 43)
quantitative trait loci (QTL) (p. 43)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ Brain and nervous system development, structure, and function
➢ Pre-, peri-, and postnatal risks to the nervous system
➢ The genetic context of development, including genetic research
➢ Basic learning/cognitive processes and their role in development
➢ An ecological model of sociocultural influences on development
➢ The family context of development, including maltreatment and divorce
➢ Influences of peers on development
➢ Community and societal contexts of development
KEY TERMS
neurons (p. 37)
myelin (p. 38)
pruning (p. 38)
central nervous system (p. 38)
peripheral nervous system (p. 38)
endocrine system (p. 38)
hindbrain (p. 38)
midbrain, forebrain (p. 39)
cell body, dendrites, axon (p. 39)
synapse (p. 39)
neurotransmitters (p. 39)
teratogens (p. 40)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (p. 40)
plasticity (p. 41)
chromosomes (p. 41)
DNA (p. 41)
genes (p. 41)
behavior genetics (p. 41)
transcription (p. 42)
translation (p. 42)
epigenetics (p. 42)
genotype, phenotype (p. 43)
dominant genes, recessive genes (p. 43)
index case, proband (p. 43)
quantitative trait loci (QTL) (p. 43)
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quantitative genetic methods (p. 43)
heritability (p. 43)
shared and nonshared environmental influences (p. 43)
linkage analysis (p. 44)
association analysis (p. 44)
genome-wide linkage and association analyses (p. 44)
gene-environment interaction (p. 44)
gene-environment correlation (p. 44)
classical conditioning (p. 45)
operant learning (p. 45)
observational learning (p. 47)
cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 47)
parenting styles (p. 49)
child abuse (p. 51)
maltreatment (p. 51)
acculturation (p. 62)
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Students’ own personal life story. Before discussing Chapter 3, have the students think about who
they are. Which approach has contributed most to who they are today? For example, are they more a
product of the earliest influences in their life (psychodynamic approach), early interpersonal bonds or
losses (attachment theory), learning or modeling (behavioral), and so on? Lead a discussion focusing
on the reasons for the beliefs they hold.
2. Behavior Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Day-to-Day Living
a. Discuss the following points: Using the behavioral approach, how would you get a child to refrain
from drawing on a wall by using either positive or negative reinforcement?
b. What are the side effects if severe punishment is used to control behavior? Are there any
examples of these side effects that we see in everyday life? According to behavior theory, what is
the best way to control undesirable behavior? How does our society deal with undesirable
behaviors? What are the results? What improvements could be made?
c. Ask the class members to discuss the implications of modeling and media violence for children’s
behavior. Does violence on television affect younger or older children equally? Should television
viewing be limited? Are girls or boys affected more? Are there other examples of cultural
violence your students can suggest?
3. The text labels Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) a preventable tragedy. Although this disturbing
developmental problem may indeed be preventable, this depends on pregnant women’s willingness to
prevent. The federal government has mandated warning labels on containers of alcoholic beverages:
“According to the Surgeon General, women should not drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy
because of the risk of birth defects.” There is also a warning that “consumption of alcoholic beverages
impairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems.” Quite
obviously, the latter warning is not always observed; in fact, some would say that it is largely ignored.
With this in mind, one has to wonder about the effectiveness of the warning concerning pregnant
women’s consumption of alcohol. Have your students speculate about whether there is more that can
be done to prevent FAS. Pose the question, “Should pregnant women be allowed to purchase
alcoholic beverages?” Then, remind them that as in the case of underage drinking, other adults can
quantitative genetic methods (p. 43)
heritability (p. 43)
shared and nonshared environmental influences (p. 43)
linkage analysis (p. 44)
association analysis (p. 44)
genome-wide linkage and association analyses (p. 44)
gene-environment interaction (p. 44)
gene-environment correlation (p. 44)
classical conditioning (p. 45)
operant learning (p. 45)
observational learning (p. 47)
cognitive-behavioral perspective (p. 47)
parenting styles (p. 49)
child abuse (p. 51)
maltreatment (p. 51)
acculturation (p. 62)
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS
1. Students’ own personal life story. Before discussing Chapter 3, have the students think about who
they are. Which approach has contributed most to who they are today? For example, are they more a
product of the earliest influences in their life (psychodynamic approach), early interpersonal bonds or
losses (attachment theory), learning or modeling (behavioral), and so on? Lead a discussion focusing
on the reasons for the beliefs they hold.
2. Behavior Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Day-to-Day Living
a. Discuss the following points: Using the behavioral approach, how would you get a child to refrain
from drawing on a wall by using either positive or negative reinforcement?
b. What are the side effects if severe punishment is used to control behavior? Are there any
examples of these side effects that we see in everyday life? According to behavior theory, what is
the best way to control undesirable behavior? How does our society deal with undesirable
behaviors? What are the results? What improvements could be made?
c. Ask the class members to discuss the implications of modeling and media violence for children’s
behavior. Does violence on television affect younger or older children equally? Should television
viewing be limited? Are girls or boys affected more? Are there other examples of cultural
violence your students can suggest?
3. The text labels Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) a preventable tragedy. Although this disturbing
developmental problem may indeed be preventable, this depends on pregnant women’s willingness to
prevent. The federal government has mandated warning labels on containers of alcoholic beverages:
“According to the Surgeon General, women should not drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy
because of the risk of birth defects.” There is also a warning that “consumption of alcoholic beverages
impairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems.” Quite
obviously, the latter warning is not always observed; in fact, some would say that it is largely ignored.
With this in mind, one has to wonder about the effectiveness of the warning concerning pregnant
women’s consumption of alcohol. Have your students speculate about whether there is more that can
be done to prevent FAS. Pose the question, “Should pregnant women be allowed to purchase
alcoholic beverages?” Then, remind them that as in the case of underage drinking, other adults can
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21
easily purchase alcohol for those who are prohibited from using it. This topic should generate some
interesting discussion.
4. The Human Genome Project website. This website is a great resource for educating yourself about the
Human Genome Project. You can click on any of the 24 chromosomes and determine the types of
genetic diseases associated with each disorder. For a project, have students select any 5 chromosomes
and compile a list of 20 associated disorders (e.g., chromosome 15, Tay Sachs disease).
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Experience a treatment: Dreams. Dreams were once considered the “royal road to the unconscious.”
Have students keep a dream log. They should keep a red pencil and paper next to their beds (they may
also want a small flashlight). Immediately upon waking, tell the students to record their dreams along
with the date. Do they have any association or thoughts as to the meaning of the dream? Any
symbolism they might consider? Have the students think about their current situations and life
experiences to see if they uncover any conscious connections to their dreams. If possible, have them
keep the dream log for a week to see if any further dreams or insights may arise. Many students will
say they don’t dream. Remind them everyone dreams, although they may not recall their dreams. The
availability of the paper and pen (and often the power of suggestion) may assist the students in better
recall. Finally, have them analyze the possibilities of unconscious determinants.
2. Habit change: Have students consider a habit they may want to change (e.g., nail biting). Ask them to
keep a behavior log for a week with separate columns for day, time of day, place and person, and
situation during which the behavior occurred. You may then encourage students to follow up by
considering ways to remove themselves from that situation.
3. The genogram: Sociocultural perspective. In order to provide a child and family with effective
treatment, it is important to have a sense of the family as a unit. Some therapists prefer to use a
genogram. Pendergast and Sherman (1978) suggest the use of the following symbols as students
create their genogram: males-square; females-circle; pets-asterisk. A triangle within a circle indicates
pregnancy; ages are placed inside the symbols; straight vertical lines indicate relationships by blood;
dashed horizontal lines indicate non-married persons living together; a wavy line represents a
conflictual relationship; a double slash across a horizontal line indicates divorce; and a single slash
with an ‘s’ across a horizontal line is a separation.
Pendergast, E.G., & Sherman, C.O. (1978). A guide to the genogram. In The best of the family 1973-1978. New York: The
Center for Family Living.
4. Create your own genetic trait family tree. Have students learn more personally about genetic traits by
going to this website:
www.childrenheartinstitute.org/educate/fmlytree/fmlytree.htm
If you are interested in creating your own genetic trait family tree, go to this website for instructions
and a copy of a family tree to complete.
easily purchase alcohol for those who are prohibited from using it. This topic should generate some
interesting discussion.
4. The Human Genome Project website. This website is a great resource for educating yourself about the
Human Genome Project. You can click on any of the 24 chromosomes and determine the types of
genetic diseases associated with each disorder. For a project, have students select any 5 chromosomes
and compile a list of 20 associated disorders (e.g., chromosome 15, Tay Sachs disease).
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Experience a treatment: Dreams. Dreams were once considered the “royal road to the unconscious.”
Have students keep a dream log. They should keep a red pencil and paper next to their beds (they may
also want a small flashlight). Immediately upon waking, tell the students to record their dreams along
with the date. Do they have any association or thoughts as to the meaning of the dream? Any
symbolism they might consider? Have the students think about their current situations and life
experiences to see if they uncover any conscious connections to their dreams. If possible, have them
keep the dream log for a week to see if any further dreams or insights may arise. Many students will
say they don’t dream. Remind them everyone dreams, although they may not recall their dreams. The
availability of the paper and pen (and often the power of suggestion) may assist the students in better
recall. Finally, have them analyze the possibilities of unconscious determinants.
2. Habit change: Have students consider a habit they may want to change (e.g., nail biting). Ask them to
keep a behavior log for a week with separate columns for day, time of day, place and person, and
situation during which the behavior occurred. You may then encourage students to follow up by
considering ways to remove themselves from that situation.
3. The genogram: Sociocultural perspective. In order to provide a child and family with effective
treatment, it is important to have a sense of the family as a unit. Some therapists prefer to use a
genogram. Pendergast and Sherman (1978) suggest the use of the following symbols as students
create their genogram: males-square; females-circle; pets-asterisk. A triangle within a circle indicates
pregnancy; ages are placed inside the symbols; straight vertical lines indicate relationships by blood;
dashed horizontal lines indicate non-married persons living together; a wavy line represents a
conflictual relationship; a double slash across a horizontal line indicates divorce; and a single slash
with an ‘s’ across a horizontal line is a separation.
Pendergast, E.G., & Sherman, C.O. (1978). A guide to the genogram. In The best of the family 1973-1978. New York: The
Center for Family Living.
4. Create your own genetic trait family tree. Have students learn more personally about genetic traits by
going to this website:
www.childrenheartinstitute.org/educate/fmlytree/fmlytree.htm
If you are interested in creating your own genetic trait family tree, go to this website for instructions
and a copy of a family tree to complete.
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22
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
Burroughs, A. (2003). Running with scissors. Picador.
Gregory, J., & Feldmann, M. (2003). Sickened: The memoir of a Munchausen by proxy childhood. New
York: Bantam Books.
Moffatt, G. K. (2003). Wounded innocents and fallen angel: Child abuse and child aggression. Praeger
Publishers.
Rymer, R. (1994). Genie: A scientific tragedy. Harper Paperbacks.
Cole, T. (2004). Charred souls: A story of recreational child abuse. Oberpark Publishing.
Wilson, S. (2000). Daddy's apprentice: Incest, corruption, and betrayal: A survivor's story. Writer's
Showcase Press.
Readings
Boomsma, D. J.; Busjahn, A.; & Peltonen, L. (2002). Classical twin studies and beyond. Nature Reviews:
Genetics, 3, 872-882.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological
differences. Journal of Neurobiology, 54, 4-45.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2004). Genetic Influences in human psychological traits: A survey. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 148-151.
Carey, G. (2003). Human genetics for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Evans, G.W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77-92.
Hinton, D. (2001). Kyol Goeu (“Wind Overload”) Part 1: A cultural syndrome of orthostatic panic among
Khmer refugees. Transcultural Psychiatry 38(4), 403-432.
Marcus, G. (2004). The birth of the mind: How a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human
thought. New York: Basic Books.
Plomin, R.; DeFries, J. C.; Craig, I. W.; & McGuffin, P. (Eds.) (2003). Behavioral genetics in the post-
genomic era. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Ridley, M. (2003). Nature via nurture: Genes, experience and what makes us human. New York:
HarperCollins.
Rutter, M. (2002). Nature, nurture, and development: From evangelism through science toward policy and
practice. Child Development, 73, 1-21.
SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS
Books
Burroughs, A. (2003). Running with scissors. Picador.
Gregory, J., & Feldmann, M. (2003). Sickened: The memoir of a Munchausen by proxy childhood. New
York: Bantam Books.
Moffatt, G. K. (2003). Wounded innocents and fallen angel: Child abuse and child aggression. Praeger
Publishers.
Rymer, R. (1994). Genie: A scientific tragedy. Harper Paperbacks.
Cole, T. (2004). Charred souls: A story of recreational child abuse. Oberpark Publishing.
Wilson, S. (2000). Daddy's apprentice: Incest, corruption, and betrayal: A survivor's story. Writer's
Showcase Press.
Readings
Boomsma, D. J.; Busjahn, A.; & Peltonen, L. (2002). Classical twin studies and beyond. Nature Reviews:
Genetics, 3, 872-882.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological
differences. Journal of Neurobiology, 54, 4-45.
Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2004). Genetic Influences in human psychological traits: A survey. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 148-151.
Carey, G. (2003). Human genetics for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Evans, G.W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77-92.
Hinton, D. (2001). Kyol Goeu (“Wind Overload”) Part 1: A cultural syndrome of orthostatic panic among
Khmer refugees. Transcultural Psychiatry 38(4), 403-432.
Marcus, G. (2004). The birth of the mind: How a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human
thought. New York: Basic Books.
Plomin, R.; DeFries, J. C.; Craig, I. W.; & McGuffin, P. (Eds.) (2003). Behavioral genetics in the post-
genomic era. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Ridley, M. (2003). Nature via nurture: Genes, experience and what makes us human. New York:
HarperCollins.
Rutter, M. (2002). Nature, nurture, and development: From evangelism through science toward policy and
practice. Child Development, 73, 1-21.
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MEDIA RESOURCES
Broken Child: Case Studies of Child Abuse (2000)
HBO-Films for the Humanities and Sciences (61 min).
Narrated by Susan Sarandon, this film investigates the cycle of child abuse. Included are case studies
of children with developmental difficulties caused by maternal substance abuse, PTSD from domestic
violence, and children with life-threatening injuries from beatings.
Broken Bonds: Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (26 min).
This film examines the case of Morgan Reid, who was thought to have died from Sudden Infant
Death Syndrome. When the Reid’s newborn son began to experience similar symptoms, a review of
the case led to a change in the ruling in Morgan's death from SIDS to murder.
Essentials of Play Therapy with Abused Children (1998)
Guilford Publications (40 min).
Emphasizes the benefits of play therapy for children who have been physically or sexually abused.
See the therapeutic playroom, how play therapies work, and helpful advice from professionals.
Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (31 min).
Fetal alcohol syndrome can hold devastating consequences for those who acquire it. This film
presents current thinking and research on diagnosis, education, and amelioration of this spectrum
disorder.
The Bad Seed (1956)
Warner Studios
Do heredity and environment play equal parts in a child's development? Or is one factor stronger than
the other? We may never know … does bad beget bad?
The Nine Months That Made You: Pregnancy and Human Development (2011)
BBC (50 min).
Where do babies come from? Hopefully your students already know. If so, this film will be a
refresher. If not, this film will offer much-needed information! In any event, it will probably
disabuse your students of some misbegotten notions they may hold regarding pregnancy and prenatal
development.
The Trouble with Evan (1996)
Filmmaker's Library (90 min).
As early as age four, Evan displayed severe behavioral problems. Cameras were placed in Evan's
home for three months. This film shows moments of family conflict, intense verbal and emotional
abuse, and the general goings-on around Evan’s home. It also includes excerpts of therapy sessions
with five young offenders at a juvenile correction center.
What Is Childhood Trauma? (2002)
Understanding Childhood Trauma (29 min).
MEDIA RESOURCES
Broken Child: Case Studies of Child Abuse (2000)
HBO-Films for the Humanities and Sciences (61 min).
Narrated by Susan Sarandon, this film investigates the cycle of child abuse. Included are case studies
of children with developmental difficulties caused by maternal substance abuse, PTSD from domestic
violence, and children with life-threatening injuries from beatings.
Broken Bonds: Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (26 min).
This film examines the case of Morgan Reid, who was thought to have died from Sudden Infant
Death Syndrome. When the Reid’s newborn son began to experience similar symptoms, a review of
the case led to a change in the ruling in Morgan's death from SIDS to murder.
Essentials of Play Therapy with Abused Children (1998)
Guilford Publications (40 min).
Emphasizes the benefits of play therapy for children who have been physically or sexually abused.
See the therapeutic playroom, how play therapies work, and helpful advice from professionals.
Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future (2007)
Films for the Humanities and Sciences (31 min).
Fetal alcohol syndrome can hold devastating consequences for those who acquire it. This film
presents current thinking and research on diagnosis, education, and amelioration of this spectrum
disorder.
The Bad Seed (1956)
Warner Studios
Do heredity and environment play equal parts in a child's development? Or is one factor stronger than
the other? We may never know … does bad beget bad?
The Nine Months That Made You: Pregnancy and Human Development (2011)
BBC (50 min).
Where do babies come from? Hopefully your students already know. If so, this film will be a
refresher. If not, this film will offer much-needed information! In any event, it will probably
disabuse your students of some misbegotten notions they may hold regarding pregnancy and prenatal
development.
The Trouble with Evan (1996)
Filmmaker's Library (90 min).
As early as age four, Evan displayed severe behavioral problems. Cameras were placed in Evan's
home for three months. This film shows moments of family conflict, intense verbal and emotional
abuse, and the general goings-on around Evan’s home. It also includes excerpts of therapy sessions
with five young offenders at a juvenile correction center.
What Is Childhood Trauma? (2002)
Understanding Childhood Trauma (29 min).
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In this series, Bruce D. Perry explains how to identify, understand, and supportively respond to
trauma in the life of a child.
In this series, Bruce D. Perry explains how to identify, understand, and supportively respond to
trauma in the life of a child.
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WEB LINKS
B.F. Skinner: www.bfskinner.org
Classical Conditioning: www.brembs.net/classical/classical.html
Human Genome Project: www.ornl.gov/hgmis
Neurotransmitters in Living Color:
www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/neurotrans/neurotrans.html
News in Science: www.sciencedaily.com
Operant Conditioning: www.uwm.edu/~johnchay/oc.htm
Recent Developments in Human Behavioral Genetics:
www.faseb.org/genetics/ashg/policy/pol-28.htm
Schedules of Reinforcement: www.brembs.net/operant/schedule.html
Self-Efficacy: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm
WEB LINKS
B.F. Skinner: www.bfskinner.org
Classical Conditioning: www.brembs.net/classical/classical.html
Human Genome Project: www.ornl.gov/hgmis
Neurotransmitters in Living Color:
www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/neurotrans/neurotrans.html
News in Science: www.sciencedaily.com
Operant Conditioning: www.uwm.edu/~johnchay/oc.htm
Recent Developments in Human Behavioral Genetics:
www.faseb.org/genetics/ashg/policy/pol-28.htm
Schedules of Reinforcement: www.brembs.net/operant/schedule.html
Self-Efficacy: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm
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26
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH: ITS ROLE AND METHODS
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Science, from the Latin word for “knowledge” or “to know,” refers to knowledge gained by particular
methods of inquiry. Although common sense can tell us some things about behavior, it is science that
gives us systematic, reliable, and accurate knowledge. Through systematic scientific inquiry, researchers
describe and explain phenomena in an effort to answer questions such as what differentiates normal and
abnormal behavior, the demographic factors associated with specific disorders, or how psychological
disorders change over time.
Just as researchers pose a variety of questions and hypotheses, they rely on different methods and
strategies to answer them, depending on the purposes of the research. In all cases, careful consideration
must be given to selection of participants, observation and measurements, and the reliability and validity
of the measurement process. Most psychological disorder research draws participants from clinics,
hospitals, schools, and other facilities serving youngsters with problems. Random selection helps ensure
the sample tested represents the population from which it was drawn. However, it is unlikely these
populations represent all young people. These biases have important implications for how disorders are
recognized, assessed, defined, and represented.
Observation and measurement are at the core of scientific inquiry. Accurate observation, clear operational
definitions, reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate) measurement are essential features of the scientific
process. The concepts of reliability and validity apply to the results of research as well. There’s an
assumption that events should repeat themselves (reliability), given the same or similar conditions.
There’s a more crucial assumption of the correctness (validity) of the findings. Internal validity is the
degree to which alternative explanations for results can be confidently ruled out. External validity refers
to the generalizability of findings to other populations and settings.
There are many methods of research, each suited to particular purposes and each with associated strengths
and weaknesses. The choice of a research method often depends on the purpose of the investigation, as
well as practical and ethical considerations. One useful distinction is between descriptive (or
nonexperimental) and experimental methods. The general purpose of descriptive methods is to portray a
phenomenon of interest. Experimental studies can be either randomized or quasi-experimental. There are
five research methods commonly used in the study of developmental psychopathology. The case study is
a fertile source of descriptive material about an individual. Correlational studies provide information
about the relationship among variables and are widely used in developmental psychopathology research.
A more powerful way to examine hypotheses about relationships is to employ experiments of nature. A
randomized experiment is the only “true” experiment because it is the strongest method for detecting
causal links between variables. Single-case experimental designs involve a manipulation with a single (or
a few) participants.
Studies that consider change over time may be cross-sectional, longitudinal, or accelerated longitudinal in
their design. The cross-sectional strategy examines groups of people at a particular point in time and
frequently is used to examine age differences. The longitudinal strategy is more appropriate for tracing
development over a span of time. Accelerated longitudinal designs combine the longitudinal and cross-
sectional strategies to permit examination of developmental change, age differences, and the influence of
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH: ITS ROLE AND METHODS
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Science, from the Latin word for “knowledge” or “to know,” refers to knowledge gained by particular
methods of inquiry. Although common sense can tell us some things about behavior, it is science that
gives us systematic, reliable, and accurate knowledge. Through systematic scientific inquiry, researchers
describe and explain phenomena in an effort to answer questions such as what differentiates normal and
abnormal behavior, the demographic factors associated with specific disorders, or how psychological
disorders change over time.
Just as researchers pose a variety of questions and hypotheses, they rely on different methods and
strategies to answer them, depending on the purposes of the research. In all cases, careful consideration
must be given to selection of participants, observation and measurements, and the reliability and validity
of the measurement process. Most psychological disorder research draws participants from clinics,
hospitals, schools, and other facilities serving youngsters with problems. Random selection helps ensure
the sample tested represents the population from which it was drawn. However, it is unlikely these
populations represent all young people. These biases have important implications for how disorders are
recognized, assessed, defined, and represented.
Observation and measurement are at the core of scientific inquiry. Accurate observation, clear operational
definitions, reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate) measurement are essential features of the scientific
process. The concepts of reliability and validity apply to the results of research as well. There’s an
assumption that events should repeat themselves (reliability), given the same or similar conditions.
There’s a more crucial assumption of the correctness (validity) of the findings. Internal validity is the
degree to which alternative explanations for results can be confidently ruled out. External validity refers
to the generalizability of findings to other populations and settings.
There are many methods of research, each suited to particular purposes and each with associated strengths
and weaknesses. The choice of a research method often depends on the purpose of the investigation, as
well as practical and ethical considerations. One useful distinction is between descriptive (or
nonexperimental) and experimental methods. The general purpose of descriptive methods is to portray a
phenomenon of interest. Experimental studies can be either randomized or quasi-experimental. There are
five research methods commonly used in the study of developmental psychopathology. The case study is
a fertile source of descriptive material about an individual. Correlational studies provide information
about the relationship among variables and are widely used in developmental psychopathology research.
A more powerful way to examine hypotheses about relationships is to employ experiments of nature. A
randomized experiment is the only “true” experiment because it is the strongest method for detecting
causal links between variables. Single-case experimental designs involve a manipulation with a single (or
a few) participants.
Studies that consider change over time may be cross-sectional, longitudinal, or accelerated longitudinal in
their design. The cross-sectional strategy examines groups of people at a particular point in time and
frequently is used to examine age differences. The longitudinal strategy is more appropriate for tracing
development over a span of time. Accelerated longitudinal designs combine the longitudinal and cross-
sectional strategies to permit examination of developmental change, age differences, and the influence of
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27
generational effects. Retrospective (follow-back) studies and prospective longitudinal strategies identify
risk and possible causal factors.
Epidemiological research, which has its foundations in medicine, is based on the assumption that disease
or disorders can best be understood by viewing individuals in the context of the physical and social
environments in which the disorder develops. Epidemiological research provides data on the rates and
distribution of disorders, modes of transmission, and on factors correlated with the disorder in large
populations. The findings contribute to and assist social policy efforts to deliver optimal mental health
services.
Recently there has been increased interest in qualitative strategies. Qualitative and quantitative strategies
have often been viewed as adversarial, due perhaps to their different emphases. Qualitative research
places a premium on individuals' perception of their experiences in their natural environments. Data often
are collected through in-depth interviews or life histories. To support their positions, advocates of
qualitative approaches point to what they see as many shortcomings of quantitative methods. However,
used together, the methods can provide complementary sources of information. Improved scientific
methods may help achieve the goals of better assessment, more successful treatment, and the reduction or
prevention of many child and adolescent disorders.
The ethical conduct of research is especially salient when conducting studies with children and
adolescents. Ethical guidelines are established and evaluated by institutional review boards. Some
fundamental guidelines are voluntary informed consent, privacy, and assessment of risks and benefits to
the participant. Ethical issues are further addressed by several government agencies and professional
organizations. Special protection is given to the young and those with mental disabilities. Ultimately,
judgments about what is ethical often come down to balancing the individual's competence to understand
and voluntarily consent to participate, the risk of harm, and the possibility of benefit. The principle of
confidentiality assures that research participants have the right to control the degree to which information
can be disclosed to others. Plainly, no serious harm should be done to participants. Nonmaleficence refers
to guarding against the potential for harm, whereas beneficence requires that benefits be maximized.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
Selection of Participants
Observation and Measurement
Reliability of Research Results
Validity of Research Results
BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
Case Studies
Correlational Studies
Randomized Experiments
Single-Case Experimental Design
Reversal Designs
Multiple Baseline Designs
generational effects. Retrospective (follow-back) studies and prospective longitudinal strategies identify
risk and possible causal factors.
Epidemiological research, which has its foundations in medicine, is based on the assumption that disease
or disorders can best be understood by viewing individuals in the context of the physical and social
environments in which the disorder develops. Epidemiological research provides data on the rates and
distribution of disorders, modes of transmission, and on factors correlated with the disorder in large
populations. The findings contribute to and assist social policy efforts to deliver optimal mental health
services.
Recently there has been increased interest in qualitative strategies. Qualitative and quantitative strategies
have often been viewed as adversarial, due perhaps to their different emphases. Qualitative research
places a premium on individuals' perception of their experiences in their natural environments. Data often
are collected through in-depth interviews or life histories. To support their positions, advocates of
qualitative approaches point to what they see as many shortcomings of quantitative methods. However,
used together, the methods can provide complementary sources of information. Improved scientific
methods may help achieve the goals of better assessment, more successful treatment, and the reduction or
prevention of many child and adolescent disorders.
The ethical conduct of research is especially salient when conducting studies with children and
adolescents. Ethical guidelines are established and evaluated by institutional review boards. Some
fundamental guidelines are voluntary informed consent, privacy, and assessment of risks and benefits to
the participant. Ethical issues are further addressed by several government agencies and professional
organizations. Special protection is given to the young and those with mental disabilities. Ultimately,
judgments about what is ethical often come down to balancing the individual's competence to understand
and voluntarily consent to participate, the risk of harm, and the possibility of benefit. The principle of
confidentiality assures that research participants have the right to control the degree to which information
can be disclosed to others. Plainly, no serious harm should be done to participants. Nonmaleficence refers
to guarding against the potential for harm, whereas beneficence requires that benefits be maximized.
CONTENT OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
Selection of Participants
Observation and Measurement
Reliability of Research Results
Validity of Research Results
BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH
Case Studies
Correlational Studies
Randomized Experiments
Single-Case Experimental Design
Reversal Designs
Multiple Baseline Designs
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28
TIME FRAMES IN RESEARCH
Cross-Sectional Research
Retrospective Longitudinal Research
Prospective Longitudinal Research
Accelerated Longitudinal Research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples of Qualitative Studies
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
ETHICAL ISSUES
Voluntary Informed Consent
Confidentiality
Balancing It All: Harm and Good
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ The aim of science and the roles of observation and measurement
➢ Reliability and validity of research results
➢ The case study, correlational methods, the experiment, and single-subject designs
➢ Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and accelerated longitudinal designs
➢ Qualitative research
➢ Ethical issues in research
KEY TERMS
hypothesis testing (p. 66)
random selection (p. 66)
selection bias (p. 67)
operational definition (p. 67)
validity (p. 67)
reliable (p. 67)
naturalistic observation (p. 67)
interobserver reliability (p. 67)
TIME FRAMES IN RESEARCH
Cross-Sectional Research
Retrospective Longitudinal Research
Prospective Longitudinal Research
Accelerated Longitudinal Research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples of Qualitative Studies
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
ETHICAL ISSUES
Voluntary Informed Consent
Confidentiality
Balancing It All: Harm and Good
OVERVIEW
KEY TERMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss:
➢ The aim of science and the roles of observation and measurement
➢ Reliability and validity of research results
➢ The case study, correlational methods, the experiment, and single-subject designs
➢ Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and accelerated longitudinal designs
➢ Qualitative research
➢ Ethical issues in research
KEY TERMS
hypothesis testing (p. 66)
random selection (p. 66)
selection bias (p. 67)
operational definition (p. 67)
validity (p. 67)
reliable (p. 67)
naturalistic observation (p. 67)
interobserver reliability (p. 67)
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Psychology