Solution Manual for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition

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SOLUTION MANUAL
Sandy Schlieman
Algonquin
College
CHILDREN
A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH
Fifth Canadian Edition
Robert V. Kail
Purdue University
Theresa Zolner
King’s University

Chapter 1
Children - 1
Chapter 1
Child Development: Theories and Themes
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
Key Terms
Classroom Activities
Films
INTERNET RESOURCES
CASE STUDY
HANDOUTS

Chapter 1
Children - 2
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
I. MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
A. Canada’s Unique Contribution
a. James Mark Baldwin
b. Canadian Research
c. Access to Historical Information
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/
B. The Biological Perspective
a. Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell)
b. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)
(1) Critical Period
(2) Imprinting
(3) Attachment
C. The Psychodynamic Perspective
a. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
b. Psychoanalysis
c. Theory of Personality
(1) Id
(2) Ego
(3) Superego
d. Theory of Psychosexual Development
e. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)
(1) Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1)
D. The Learning Perspective
a. Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
(1) Watson (Little Albert)
b. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
(1) Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement
(2) Punishment
c. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)
(1) Imitation of Observational Learning
(2) Self-Efficacy
d. Imitation or Observational Learning
e. Self-efficacy
E. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
a. Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2
F. The Contextual Perspective
a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)
b. Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1

Chapter 1
Children - 3
G. Newer Approaches to Child Development
a. Information-Processing Theory
b. Evolutionary Theory
c. Developmental Psychopathology
H. The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories
(Refer to Summary Table 1-3)
II. MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
A. Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly
(continuity-versus-discontinuity issue)
B. Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity And
Environment (nature-nurture issue)
C. Children Help Determine Their Own Development
(active-passive child issue)
D. Development In Different Domains Is Connected
(interconnected domains)
MODULE SUPPLEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
LO1. Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.
LO2. State the major tenets of the biological perspective.
LO3. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.
LO4. Identify the focus of learning theories.
LO5. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's
thinking.
LO6. Name the main points of the contextual approach.
LO7. Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.
LO8. Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.
(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)
MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1
Children - 4
Key Terms:
theory
natural selection
maturational theory
ethological theory
critical period
imprinting
attachment
psychoanalysis
id
ego
superego
libido
body ego
psychic skin
neuropsychoanalysis
psychodynamic theories
psychosocial theory
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
reinforcement
punishment
imitation
observational (vicarious) learning
social cognitive theory
self-efficacy
culture
ecological theory
mental hardware
mental software
evolutionary developmental psychology
developmental psychopathology
Classroom Activities:
♦ What Do You Know About Childhood? On the first day of class, instructors have
experienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a
“true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course.
After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece of
paper and record their answers to the following questions:
TRUE or FALSE:
1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants. (False)
2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True)
3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be
secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile.
(True)
4. Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers. (False)
5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult. (True)

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Chapter 1
Children - 5
6. Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their
children. (True)
7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False)
8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False)
9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False)
10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of
children. (True)
Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers.
Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably,
brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding,
spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose of
demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting the
students actively involved in class discussion.
♦ What Do You Want to Know about Childhood? Another first-day activity that
gives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course is
described in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the first
day of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out a
question that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199).
Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected,
sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve as
organizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered.
According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what he
calls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language and
cognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birth
order, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues.
Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additional
students' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in your
course.
Source: Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about child
development. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the
teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Chapter 1
Children - 6
♦ Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to
maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or
plan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that
development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little.
Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may
wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were
utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half
of the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children,
ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is
predictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of your
upbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited?
♦ From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an
evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e.,
they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your
class to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask the
class to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development?
♦ Intrapsychic Conflict. Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group a
component of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it will
be their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Present
each group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an
attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, or
superego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they have
been assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component.
After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each
group is portraying.
♦ Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the text
on “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class to
work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a
positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorder
from each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion will
provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will
facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.
♦ Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is
usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous
with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class
complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

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Chapter 1
Children - 7
 “Children See, Children Do.” How do children learn simply by watching
others? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your class
about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four steps
involved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learned
as a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learned
using the following four steps:
(1) Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of
another.
(2) Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time,
the learner must remember what he/she attended to.
(3) Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain
must be reproduced or performed by the learner.
(4) Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform.
Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions
performed by the model.
Source: Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
 Your Developmental Ecology. Have your students complete Handout 1-4.
This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory,
effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact human
development. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmental
theory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.
 Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students
complete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual
differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
Who Do You Agree With? People usually have strong opinions about how
children should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students in
comparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1-
5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify their
answer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.
 Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This
exercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable
developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed in
small groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take-
home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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Chapter 1
Children - 8
Films:
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes).
Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment and
his snake phobia work.
B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a complete
review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, and
credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.
B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of
the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.
Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overview
of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and
Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell,
and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of
child development.
Child Development: stepping stones (Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). This
video discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the major
theories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory,
behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective.
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond (Learning Zone
Express, 2009). Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev
Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F.
Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard
Gardner.
The Child’s Mind (Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation the
information-processing approach to understanding cognitive development.
Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56
minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in
clinical therapy, education and child-rearing.
Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview of
Piaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.
Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).
Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical
and operant conditioning are included in this video.

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Chapter 1
Children - 9
Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson
discusses his stage theory of psychosocial development.
Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and its
riders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.
Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes).
This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality,
consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.
Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner
and reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.
The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstration
of classical and operant conditioning with infants.
Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: An
interview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmental
issues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views on
Freud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own
theory.
Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David
Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear
demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.
Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of
cognitive development.
Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an
overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and
sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell,
Skinner and Vygotsky are featured.
Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This video
highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s
psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning
theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.
Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person. (Magic Lantern, 2003, 28
minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the

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Chapter 1
Children - 10
impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean
Piaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development.
Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Canadian Learning Company, 1994,
28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, by
using early childhood and primary classrooms.

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Chapter 1
Children - 11
Learning Objectives:
LO9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from
early life.
LO10. Understand how heredity and environment influence development.
LO11. Specify what role children have in their own development.
LO12. State how development in different domains is connected.
Classroom Activities:
♦ Nature-Nurture Demonstration. To clarify the complicated interaction of
genetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticut
recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual
ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent
genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed
to various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very
different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Miller
demonstrates the following cases:
Basic
Ingredient Additional Ingredients Treatment Developmental Outcome
FLOUR SALT + WATER FRYING FLOUR TORTILLA
FLOUR SALT + WATER BAKING MATZO
FLOUR SALT + WATER + YEAST BAKING BREAD
FLOUR SALT + BUTTER +
COCOA + SUGAR
BAKING BROWNIE
Miller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the
nature-nurture issue, including:
(a) the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and
treatments);
(b) how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not
produce a specific food item);
(c) the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g.,
What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and
(d) the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product
(e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest of
the brownie).
MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Chapter 1
Children - 12
Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E.
Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Active-Passive Debate. Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies,
personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role that
children play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or have
students work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective.
To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share their
perspective.
Films:
Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This video
highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors
on human development.
Human Brain Development (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVD
demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the
development of the brain after birth.
Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional
Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven,
includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture
of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family,
peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

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Chapter 1
Children - 13
INTERNET RESOURCES
• www.cpa.ca
Canadian Psychological Association
• www.apa.org
• www.aps.org
American Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses.
• www.piaget.org
• archivespiaget.ch
These are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives.
• psychclassics.yorku.ca
This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists.
• www.phac-aspc.gc.ca
Public Health Agency of Canada
Childhood and Adolescence
• www.kidshealth.org
Growth and Development and Health related topics

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Chapter 1
Children - 14
CASE STUDY: The Science of Child Development
Dungeon of Doom: Part I
“He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount of
time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.”
“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. He
still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”
“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’
Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”
“That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew
spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favourite
video game, Carnival of Carnage.”
1. How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of
video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage?
2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew's
habitual video game playing?
3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?
4. Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the case
described above.

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