Solution Manual for Direct Instruction Reading, 3rd Edition
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Instructor’s Resource Manual
for
Direct Instruction Reading
Sixth Edition
Douglas W. Carnine
Jerry Silbert
Edward J. Kame’enui
Timothy A. Slocum
Patricia A. Travers
Prepared Originally by
Jerry Silbert
Revised by
Edward J. Kame’enui
Timothy A. Slocum
Patricia A. Travers
for
Direct Instruction Reading
Sixth Edition
Douglas W. Carnine
Jerry Silbert
Edward J. Kame’enui
Timothy A. Slocum
Patricia A. Travers
Prepared Originally by
Jerry Silbert
Revised by
Edward J. Kame’enui
Timothy A. Slocum
Patricia A. Travers
iii
Table of Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… . v
General Recommendations………………….................................................................vi
Study Questions and Answers, Application Question Answers, Supplementary Assignments, and
Possible Test Items
Part 1 – Perspective
Chapter 1 Perspective on Reading Instruction…………………………..…………7
Chapter 2 A Model of Reading Instruction ………………………………………11
Chapter 3 Classroom Reading Instruction………………………………………...15
Chapter 4 Delivery of Instruction…………………………………………………21
Part 2 – Beginning Reading
Chapter 5 An Overview of Beginning Reading…………………………………..29
Chapter 6 Phonemic Awareness and Alphabetical Understanding……………….34
Chapter 7 Letter-Sound Correspondence…………………………………………42
Chapter 8 Sounding Out Regular Words………………………………………….49
Chapter 9 Sight-Word Reading…………………………………………………...66
Chapter 10 Irregular Words………………………………………………………...77
Chapter 11 Vocabulary Instruction………………………………………………...90
Chapter 12 Comprehension Instruction……………………………………………97
Part 3 – Reading Instruction During the Primary and Intermediate Grades
Chapter 13 Phonic Analysis………………………………………………………..104
Chapter 14 Structural Analysis…………………………………………………….114
Chapter 15 Irregular Words………………………………………………………..122
Chapter 16 Fluency and Passage Reading…………………………………………128
Chapter 17 Vocabulary Instruction………………………………………………...140
Table of Contents
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… . v
General Recommendations………………….................................................................vi
Study Questions and Answers, Application Question Answers, Supplementary Assignments, and
Possible Test Items
Part 1 – Perspective
Chapter 1 Perspective on Reading Instruction…………………………..…………7
Chapter 2 A Model of Reading Instruction ………………………………………11
Chapter 3 Classroom Reading Instruction………………………………………...15
Chapter 4 Delivery of Instruction…………………………………………………21
Part 2 – Beginning Reading
Chapter 5 An Overview of Beginning Reading…………………………………..29
Chapter 6 Phonemic Awareness and Alphabetical Understanding……………….34
Chapter 7 Letter-Sound Correspondence…………………………………………42
Chapter 8 Sounding Out Regular Words………………………………………….49
Chapter 9 Sight-Word Reading…………………………………………………...66
Chapter 10 Irregular Words………………………………………………………...77
Chapter 11 Vocabulary Instruction………………………………………………...90
Chapter 12 Comprehension Instruction……………………………………………97
Part 3 – Reading Instruction During the Primary and Intermediate Grades
Chapter 13 Phonic Analysis………………………………………………………..104
Chapter 14 Structural Analysis…………………………………………………….114
Chapter 15 Irregular Words………………………………………………………..122
Chapter 16 Fluency and Passage Reading…………………………………………128
Chapter 17 Vocabulary Instruction………………………………………………...140
iv
Part 4 – Overview of Comprehension Instruction
Chapter 18 Comprehension Skills and Procedures……………………………….148
Chapter 19 Narrative Comprehension Studies…………………………………...158
Chapter 20 Critical Reading………………………………………………………164
Part 5 – Content-Area Reading
Chapter 21 Direct Instruction in Content - Area Reading…………………………167
Part 6 - School-Wide Organization of Reading Instruction
Chapter 22 - Response to Intervention: School-Wide Organization of
Reading Instruction ……………………………………………………………………175
Part 4 – Overview of Comprehension Instruction
Chapter 18 Comprehension Skills and Procedures……………………………….148
Chapter 19 Narrative Comprehension Studies…………………………………...158
Chapter 20 Critical Reading………………………………………………………164
Part 5 – Content-Area Reading
Chapter 21 Direct Instruction in Content - Area Reading…………………………167
Part 6 - School-Wide Organization of Reading Instruction
Chapter 22 - Response to Intervention: School-Wide Organization of
Reading Instruction ……………………………………………………………………175
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v
INTRODUCTION
Components of Instructor's Guide
The Instructor's Guide supplements the text in several ways. It includes:
* Study questions designed to help students summarize the more critical information
presented in each chapter. (Both the questions and answers are listed in this guide by sections.
At the end of the guide are pages containing the study questions without answers. These pages
can be reproduced and distributed to the students.)
* Answers to the application questions that appear in the text. (The answers are also listed
by chapters.)
* Suggestions for assignments to supplement the application and study questions in the
text. The study and application questions were designed for the most part to have just one
correct answer or a very limited range of correct answers. This was done to facilitate feedback to
students. The supplementary assignments, on the other hand, are more open ended. They
usually involve evaluating and modifying commercial reading materials.
* Sample test items with answers. Test items are included for several chapters. Other test
items can be drawn from the study questions or application items provided. Instructors can
construct variations of application items for use as test items. For example, an application item
in the text might require students to analyze a child's errors during an oral reading of a sentence.
For a test item, the instructor might substitute a new sentence with different errors and ask the
student to analyze the errors.
* Role-playing suggestions. These activities are designed to simulate classroom situations
and provide students practice in applying the teaching procedures. Although detailed
suggestions are given only for the sounding out format, any of the teaching procedures can be
used in role-playing activities.
The text and this instructor's guide may be used for both preservice with teachers in
training and inservice with experienced teachers. The information covered in the text enables the
instructor to use the book in a reading methods course (for general or special education) or a
more in-depth remedial reading course. For use in a methods course, the instructor might focus
on the descriptions of major critical reading skills and the implications of a direct instruction
approach to teaching reading. For a more specialized course, the instructor will want to focus on
the in-depth procedures for teaching. Because of the large amount of information presented in
the text, it might be used over two quarters. The first term would focus on the beginning and
primary stages (Kindergarten through third grade); the second term would focus on the
intermediate stage (fourth through eighth grade).
INTRODUCTION
Components of Instructor's Guide
The Instructor's Guide supplements the text in several ways. It includes:
* Study questions designed to help students summarize the more critical information
presented in each chapter. (Both the questions and answers are listed in this guide by sections.
At the end of the guide are pages containing the study questions without answers. These pages
can be reproduced and distributed to the students.)
* Answers to the application questions that appear in the text. (The answers are also listed
by chapters.)
* Suggestions for assignments to supplement the application and study questions in the
text. The study and application questions were designed for the most part to have just one
correct answer or a very limited range of correct answers. This was done to facilitate feedback to
students. The supplementary assignments, on the other hand, are more open ended. They
usually involve evaluating and modifying commercial reading materials.
* Sample test items with answers. Test items are included for several chapters. Other test
items can be drawn from the study questions or application items provided. Instructors can
construct variations of application items for use as test items. For example, an application item
in the text might require students to analyze a child's errors during an oral reading of a sentence.
For a test item, the instructor might substitute a new sentence with different errors and ask the
student to analyze the errors.
* Role-playing suggestions. These activities are designed to simulate classroom situations
and provide students practice in applying the teaching procedures. Although detailed
suggestions are given only for the sounding out format, any of the teaching procedures can be
used in role-playing activities.
The text and this instructor's guide may be used for both preservice with teachers in
training and inservice with experienced teachers. The information covered in the text enables the
instructor to use the book in a reading methods course (for general or special education) or a
more in-depth remedial reading course. For use in a methods course, the instructor might focus
on the descriptions of major critical reading skills and the implications of a direct instruction
approach to teaching reading. For a more specialized course, the instructor will want to focus on
the in-depth procedures for teaching. Because of the large amount of information presented in
the text, it might be used over two quarters. The first term would focus on the beginning and
primary stages (Kindergarten through third grade); the second term would focus on the
intermediate stage (fourth through eighth grade).
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vi
General Recommendation
1. Begin some classes with a short quiz that includes one or two study or application
questions. This recommendation is based on the results of a study conducted by the authors.
After teaching a reading methods course using various techniques, the authors conducted a
questionnaire study to determine the effects of various in-class activities. Unannounced quizzes
on assigned material were perceived by students as being of benefit to them.
2. Review the study questions. The study questions are designed to focus greater attention
on the more critical information. Because nearly all the study questions are literal, students can
locate the answers to the questions directly in the text; so there is no need to review all of the
study questions assigned. Ask students if they have any particular questions about study
questions.
3. Review the application exercises. Ask for volunteers to read their answers. The answers
to application exercises appear by section in this guide.
4. Conduct role playing or other activities in which students must respond. There are
several types of role playing activities. The first involves the teacher modeling and testing letter-
sound correspondences. We recommend that, if possible, teachers demonstrate the sound
correspondences for letters and provide in-class practice time for students. Each student should
be tested on his or her ability to produce sounds. A second type of role playing activity involves
the instructor demonstrating how to present key formats and making corrections. If possible,
students should be “checked out” individually on their ability to present certain formats. If the
instructor has not had previous direct instruction teaching experience, videotapes or lecturers can
be used, or someone with direct instruction experience should be invited to provide a
demonstration.
5. Review any supplementary assignments. The supplementary assignments are listed by
section in this guide. Most of these assignments involve student examination, evaluation, and
modification of commercially prepared materials. When possible, guest lectures can be
scheduled in which other instructors or representatives of commercial reading programs are
invited to make presentations in their area of specialization.
6. Preview the assignment for the next class. The assignment should include the pages to be
read in the text as well as study and application questions. (The application questions appear in
the text at the end of each section. The study questions appear at the end of this instructor's
guide - they must be duplicated.) Role playing and supplementary assignments should also be
made.
General Recommendation
1. Begin some classes with a short quiz that includes one or two study or application
questions. This recommendation is based on the results of a study conducted by the authors.
After teaching a reading methods course using various techniques, the authors conducted a
questionnaire study to determine the effects of various in-class activities. Unannounced quizzes
on assigned material were perceived by students as being of benefit to them.
2. Review the study questions. The study questions are designed to focus greater attention
on the more critical information. Because nearly all the study questions are literal, students can
locate the answers to the questions directly in the text; so there is no need to review all of the
study questions assigned. Ask students if they have any particular questions about study
questions.
3. Review the application exercises. Ask for volunteers to read their answers. The answers
to application exercises appear by section in this guide.
4. Conduct role playing or other activities in which students must respond. There are
several types of role playing activities. The first involves the teacher modeling and testing letter-
sound correspondences. We recommend that, if possible, teachers demonstrate the sound
correspondences for letters and provide in-class practice time for students. Each student should
be tested on his or her ability to produce sounds. A second type of role playing activity involves
the instructor demonstrating how to present key formats and making corrections. If possible,
students should be “checked out” individually on their ability to present certain formats. If the
instructor has not had previous direct instruction teaching experience, videotapes or lecturers can
be used, or someone with direct instruction experience should be invited to provide a
demonstration.
5. Review any supplementary assignments. The supplementary assignments are listed by
section in this guide. Most of these assignments involve student examination, evaluation, and
modification of commercially prepared materials. When possible, guest lectures can be
scheduled in which other instructors or representatives of commercial reading programs are
invited to make presentations in their area of specialization.
6. Preview the assignment for the next class. The assignment should include the pages to be
read in the text as well as study and application questions. (The application questions appear in
the text at the end of each section. The study questions appear at the end of this instructor's
guide - they must be duplicated.) Role playing and supplementary assignments should also be
made.
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PART 1 – PERSPECTIVE
Chapter 1: Perspective on Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. If teachers are to effectively and efficiently teach reading, they must be knowledgeable in six
areas. List them.
2. Direct Instruction is particularly important for instructionally-naive students. What three
characteristics do the authors list in their definition of instructionally-naive students?
3. Briefly describe each of the four viewpoints discussed in this chapter regarding improving
students' performance in reading.
4. What three problems do the authors see with solutions to reading problems proposed by the
generalists?
5. What is the role of the teacher in the constructivist orientation?
6. Describe the difference between how children learn to speak and how children learn to read.
7. Describe the major difference between the Direct Instruction orientation and the other
orientations.
8. Describe what the term Direct Instruction with a capital D and I refers to in regard to
curriculum and implementation.
9. Briefly describe Project Follow Through and its findings on Direct Instruction.
10. Describe what the term direct instruction with a lower case d and i refers to.
11. What are the ten variables associated with student academic success that Rosenshine included
in his summary of direct instruction?
Study Question Answers—Chapter 1
1. If teachers are to effectively and efficiently teach reading, they must be knowledgeable in six
areas. List them.
• The essential skills or objectives that make up the reading process and the procedures for
teaching those skills.
• The sequence in which the essential skills can be introduced..
• The procedures for evaluating, selecting, and modifying reading programs to meet the needs
of all the students in their classrooms.
• The techniques for effectively presenting lessons, including techniques for pacing tasks,
motivating students, and diagnosing and correcting their errors.
• The types of assessments to use during the school year.
• How to use the information from assessments to establish an instructional program and make
necessary and timely adjustments.
PART 1 – PERSPECTIVE
Chapter 1: Perspective on Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. If teachers are to effectively and efficiently teach reading, they must be knowledgeable in six
areas. List them.
2. Direct Instruction is particularly important for instructionally-naive students. What three
characteristics do the authors list in their definition of instructionally-naive students?
3. Briefly describe each of the four viewpoints discussed in this chapter regarding improving
students' performance in reading.
4. What three problems do the authors see with solutions to reading problems proposed by the
generalists?
5. What is the role of the teacher in the constructivist orientation?
6. Describe the difference between how children learn to speak and how children learn to read.
7. Describe the major difference between the Direct Instruction orientation and the other
orientations.
8. Describe what the term Direct Instruction with a capital D and I refers to in regard to
curriculum and implementation.
9. Briefly describe Project Follow Through and its findings on Direct Instruction.
10. Describe what the term direct instruction with a lower case d and i refers to.
11. What are the ten variables associated with student academic success that Rosenshine included
in his summary of direct instruction?
Study Question Answers—Chapter 1
1. If teachers are to effectively and efficiently teach reading, they must be knowledgeable in six
areas. List them.
• The essential skills or objectives that make up the reading process and the procedures for
teaching those skills.
• The sequence in which the essential skills can be introduced..
• The procedures for evaluating, selecting, and modifying reading programs to meet the needs
of all the students in their classrooms.
• The techniques for effectively presenting lessons, including techniques for pacing tasks,
motivating students, and diagnosing and correcting their errors.
• The types of assessments to use during the school year.
• How to use the information from assessments to establish an instructional program and make
necessary and timely adjustments.
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• How to organize classrooms to maximize the amount of time students spend engaged in
reading instruction.
2. Direct Instruction is particularly important for instructionally-naive students. What three
characteristics do the authors list in their definition of instructionally-naive students?
• Students do not readily retain newly presented information.
• Students are easily confused.
• Students have difficulty attending to an instructional presentation.
• Briefly describe each of the four viewpoints discussed in this chapter regarding improving
students' performance in reading.
The first, the pessimist’s viewpoint, states that the schools can do little unless the student’s
physical make-up or home and social environment is altered. The second, the generalist’s
viewpoint, states that the schools can improve reading performance by developing a wide
range of abilities that supposedly underlie reading. The third, a constructivist or whole
language viewpoint, holds the individual reader’s construction of meaning as central to
reading, and views phonics and the “decoding” of words as strategies that trivialize the
purpose of reading. The fourth, a direct-instruction viewpoint, assumes that if teachers analyze
tasks to be learned thoroughly, sequence instruction carefully, construct clear instructional
presentations, and provide systematic practice, review, and application, teachers will be able
to provide children with an approach that will increase their probability of becoming
successful readers.
3. What three problems do the authors see as solutions to reading problems proposed by the
generalists?
• They draw attention away from the quality of reading instruction. Instead of looking at the
way reading is taught, general skills such as visual perception are stressed.
• Proposed solutions often inadvertently result in students receiving less actual reading
instruction than in a normal situation.
• Data from research reviews do not support a generalist viewpoint.
4. What is the role of the teacher in the constructivist orientation?
The teacher’s role is viewed much more as a facilitator or guide for the reading process and not as
someone whose direct actions have a direct and instrumental influence on students’ learning.
5. Describe the difference between how children learn to speak and how children learn to read.
Speech is primarily biological. Humans possess a predisposition for its development, whereas
learning to read is gaining knowledge of and practice with an agreed-upon convention for the
written representation of language known as the alphabetic writing system.
6. Describe the major difference between the Direct Instruction orientation and the other
orientations
• How to organize classrooms to maximize the amount of time students spend engaged in
reading instruction.
2. Direct Instruction is particularly important for instructionally-naive students. What three
characteristics do the authors list in their definition of instructionally-naive students?
• Students do not readily retain newly presented information.
• Students are easily confused.
• Students have difficulty attending to an instructional presentation.
• Briefly describe each of the four viewpoints discussed in this chapter regarding improving
students' performance in reading.
The first, the pessimist’s viewpoint, states that the schools can do little unless the student’s
physical make-up or home and social environment is altered. The second, the generalist’s
viewpoint, states that the schools can improve reading performance by developing a wide
range of abilities that supposedly underlie reading. The third, a constructivist or whole
language viewpoint, holds the individual reader’s construction of meaning as central to
reading, and views phonics and the “decoding” of words as strategies that trivialize the
purpose of reading. The fourth, a direct-instruction viewpoint, assumes that if teachers analyze
tasks to be learned thoroughly, sequence instruction carefully, construct clear instructional
presentations, and provide systematic practice, review, and application, teachers will be able
to provide children with an approach that will increase their probability of becoming
successful readers.
3. What three problems do the authors see as solutions to reading problems proposed by the
generalists?
• They draw attention away from the quality of reading instruction. Instead of looking at the
way reading is taught, general skills such as visual perception are stressed.
• Proposed solutions often inadvertently result in students receiving less actual reading
instruction than in a normal situation.
• Data from research reviews do not support a generalist viewpoint.
4. What is the role of the teacher in the constructivist orientation?
The teacher’s role is viewed much more as a facilitator or guide for the reading process and not as
someone whose direct actions have a direct and instrumental influence on students’ learning.
5. Describe the difference between how children learn to speak and how children learn to read.
Speech is primarily biological. Humans possess a predisposition for its development, whereas
learning to read is gaining knowledge of and practice with an agreed-upon convention for the
written representation of language known as the alphabetic writing system.
6. Describe the major difference between the Direct Instruction orientation and the other
orientations
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9
Direct instruction requires that teachers take responsibility for student performance. When a
student is not performing or progressing at desired levels, the teacher examines the way the
teacher has provided instruction and the exact difficulties that the student is having in an effort to
improve instruction.
7. Describe what the term Direct Instruction with a capital D and I refers to in the design of a
curriculum and its implementation.
Direct Instruction with a capital D and a capital I refers to instructional programs authored by
Engelmann and his colleagues and primarily published by SRA. The term Direct Instruction also
refers to the school-wide implementation model that Engelmann has developed and refined over
the past decades to foster successful implementation of the instructional materials he created. The
Direct Instruction Model includes professional development (both in-service and in-class
coaching), grouping and scheduling guidelines, assessment (including screening and progress
monitoring), systems to make adjustments when progress is not at desired levels, motivational
procedures, and leadership elements for principals and district leaders.
8. Briefly describe Project Follow Through and its findings on the Direct Instruction Model.
Project Follow Through was a federally funded 16-year study called Follow Through. In Follow
Through several major approaches to educating low-income, primary-grade students were
compared. Direct approaches were compared with approaches based on language-experience,
Piaget’s stages of learning, child-development theory, discovery learning, and open education.
Only students in a direct instruction approach consistently outperformed control students on basic,
cognitive, and affective measures.
9. Describe what the term direct instruction with a lower case d and i refers to.
The term direct instruction, with lower-case initial letters, is used to refer to general teaching
techniques that have been associated with teaching that have produced gains in learning for at-risk
students. These techniques generally utilize explicit teacher guided instructions and teacher
models and demonstrations, including guided practice and feedback.
10. What are the ten variables associated with student academic success that Rosenshine
included in his summary of direct instruction?
1. high levels of student engagement
2. academic focus
3. teacher-directed
4. carefully sequenced and structured materials
5. clear goals
6. sufficient time allocated for instruction
7. extensive content coverage
Direct instruction requires that teachers take responsibility for student performance. When a
student is not performing or progressing at desired levels, the teacher examines the way the
teacher has provided instruction and the exact difficulties that the student is having in an effort to
improve instruction.
7. Describe what the term Direct Instruction with a capital D and I refers to in the design of a
curriculum and its implementation.
Direct Instruction with a capital D and a capital I refers to instructional programs authored by
Engelmann and his colleagues and primarily published by SRA. The term Direct Instruction also
refers to the school-wide implementation model that Engelmann has developed and refined over
the past decades to foster successful implementation of the instructional materials he created. The
Direct Instruction Model includes professional development (both in-service and in-class
coaching), grouping and scheduling guidelines, assessment (including screening and progress
monitoring), systems to make adjustments when progress is not at desired levels, motivational
procedures, and leadership elements for principals and district leaders.
8. Briefly describe Project Follow Through and its findings on the Direct Instruction Model.
Project Follow Through was a federally funded 16-year study called Follow Through. In Follow
Through several major approaches to educating low-income, primary-grade students were
compared. Direct approaches were compared with approaches based on language-experience,
Piaget’s stages of learning, child-development theory, discovery learning, and open education.
Only students in a direct instruction approach consistently outperformed control students on basic,
cognitive, and affective measures.
9. Describe what the term direct instruction with a lower case d and i refers to.
The term direct instruction, with lower-case initial letters, is used to refer to general teaching
techniques that have been associated with teaching that have produced gains in learning for at-risk
students. These techniques generally utilize explicit teacher guided instructions and teacher
models and demonstrations, including guided practice and feedback.
10. What are the ten variables associated with student academic success that Rosenshine
included in his summary of direct instruction?
1. high levels of student engagement
2. academic focus
3. teacher-directed
4. carefully sequenced and structured materials
5. clear goals
6. sufficient time allocated for instruction
7. extensive content coverage
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8. monitoring of student performance
9. immediate, academically-oriented feedback to students
10. structured, but not authoritarian, teacher-student interactions
8. monitoring of student performance
9. immediate, academically-oriented feedback to students
10. structured, but not authoritarian, teacher-student interactions
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Chapter 2: A Model of Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. What is the National Reading Panel? Describe its conclusions and explain why they were
important?
2. What are the five essential components of effective reading instruction as identified by the
NRP?
3. What does phonics instruction teach?
4. Define graphemes and phonemes.
5. What is the "alphabetic principle"?
6. What are the 5 characteristics of scientifically-based reading research?
7. When is instruction explicit?
8. When is instruction systematic?
9. What happens during the pre-reading stage?
10. Describe the finding of Hart and Risley and what important factor their findings explain.
11. What is meant by “breaking the code”?
12. What is the difference between the early part of the beginning reading stage and the later
part of the beginning reading stage?
13 Why is the beginning reading stage very important?
Chapter 2: A Model of Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. What is the National Reading Panel? Describe its conclusions and explain why they were
important?
2. What are the five essential components of effective reading instruction as identified by the
NRP?
3. What does phonics instruction teach?
4. Define graphemes and phonemes.
5. What is the "alphabetic principle"?
6. What are the 5 characteristics of scientifically-based reading research?
7. When is instruction explicit?
8. When is instruction systematic?
9. What happens during the pre-reading stage?
10. Describe the finding of Hart and Risley and what important factor their findings explain.
11. What is meant by “breaking the code”?
12. What is the difference between the early part of the beginning reading stage and the later
part of the beginning reading stage?
13 Why is the beginning reading stage very important?
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Study Question Answers—Chapter 2
1. What is the National Reading Panel? Tell what its conclusions were based on and explain
why they were important.
The NRP was convened in 1997 in response to a congressional directive to review the scientific
literature and determine the most effective ways to teach children to read. The panel identified
approximately 100,000 studies. From those studies, they selected for further review the
experimental and quasi-experimental studies that met rigorous scientific standards. The panel's
conclusions were based on the evidence from those scientific studies, which makes it very
important.
2. What are the five essential components of effective reading instruction as identified by the
NRP?
1. Phonemic Awareness Instruction
2. Phonics Instruction
3. Fluency Instruction
4. Vocabulary Instruction
5. Text Comprehension Instruction
3. What does phonics instruction teach?
Phonics instruction teaches the relationships between the letters of written language (graphemes)
and the individual sounds of spoken language (phonemes). It also teaches how these
relationships are used to read and write words.
4. Define graphemes and phonemes.
Graphemes are the letters of an alphabetic written language. Phonemes are the individual
sounds of spoken language.
5. What is the "alphabetic principle"?
The alphabetic principle refers to the understanding that written letters correspond to spoken
sounds and that the correspondences are systematic and predictable.
6. What are the 5 characteristics of scientifically-based reading research?
Scientifically-based reading research:
• Applies rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant
to reading development, reading instruction, and reading difficulties.
• Employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment.
Study Question Answers—Chapter 2
1. What is the National Reading Panel? Tell what its conclusions were based on and explain
why they were important.
The NRP was convened in 1997 in response to a congressional directive to review the scientific
literature and determine the most effective ways to teach children to read. The panel identified
approximately 100,000 studies. From those studies, they selected for further review the
experimental and quasi-experimental studies that met rigorous scientific standards. The panel's
conclusions were based on the evidence from those scientific studies, which makes it very
important.
2. What are the five essential components of effective reading instruction as identified by the
NRP?
1. Phonemic Awareness Instruction
2. Phonics Instruction
3. Fluency Instruction
4. Vocabulary Instruction
5. Text Comprehension Instruction
3. What does phonics instruction teach?
Phonics instruction teaches the relationships between the letters of written language (graphemes)
and the individual sounds of spoken language (phonemes). It also teaches how these
relationships are used to read and write words.
4. Define graphemes and phonemes.
Graphemes are the letters of an alphabetic written language. Phonemes are the individual
sounds of spoken language.
5. What is the "alphabetic principle"?
The alphabetic principle refers to the understanding that written letters correspond to spoken
sounds and that the correspondences are systematic and predictable.
6. What are the 5 characteristics of scientifically-based reading research?
Scientifically-based reading research:
• Applies rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant
to reading development, reading instruction, and reading difficulties.
• Employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment.
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• Involves rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify
the general conclusions drawn.
• Relies on measurements or observational methods that provide valid data across
evaluators and observers and across multiple measurements and observations.
• Has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent
experts through a comparably rigorous, objective, and scientific review.
7. When is instruction explicit?
Instruction is explicit when the teacher clearly models or demonstrates (and, if needed, explains)
what she wants students to learn. The teacher focuses precisely on what she wants students to
learn. The teacher clearly reveals the concepts and rules she is presenting through modeling and
running commentary to students.
8. When is instruction systematic?
Instruction is systematic when it includes a: (1) planned, logically progressive sequence of
knowledge units (e.g., a carefully selected set of letter–sound relationships introduced into a
logical sequence), (2) clearly defined objectives (stated in terms of what students will do) for each
knowledge unit, (3) planned distribution of practice to build fluency and retention, and (4)
planned work on new examples (e.g., words, text) to foster application or generalization of
previously taught knowledge.
9. What happens during the pre-reading stage?
The pre-reading stage can be characterized as the time before children begin school,
when they learn to understand and use spoken language and develop a beginning understanding
of the sound structure of words.
10. Describe the findings of Hart and Risley and what important factor their findings explain.
Hart and Risley used the data from their observations to calculate that children of professionals
over the first four years of life heard approximately 48 million words. In contrast, children in low
socioeconomic homes heard only 13 million words (1995). Differences in parent–child
interactions explain the great gaps in vocabulary acquisition often seen when children enter
kindergarten.
11. What is meant by “breaking the code”?
Breaking the code refers to children learning the relationships between letters and the
sounds that they represent, and begin able to apply this knowledge to read words.
12. What is the difference between the early part of the beginning reading stage and the later
part of the beginning reading stage?
During the early part of the beginning stage, children learn the relationships between individual
letters and the sounds the letters represent and learn how to use this information to accurately
read individual words and then words in text. The latter part of the beginning reading stage refers
• Involves rigorous data analyses that are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify
the general conclusions drawn.
• Relies on measurements or observational methods that provide valid data across
evaluators and observers and across multiple measurements and observations.
• Has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent
experts through a comparably rigorous, objective, and scientific review.
7. When is instruction explicit?
Instruction is explicit when the teacher clearly models or demonstrates (and, if needed, explains)
what she wants students to learn. The teacher focuses precisely on what she wants students to
learn. The teacher clearly reveals the concepts and rules she is presenting through modeling and
running commentary to students.
8. When is instruction systematic?
Instruction is systematic when it includes a: (1) planned, logically progressive sequence of
knowledge units (e.g., a carefully selected set of letter–sound relationships introduced into a
logical sequence), (2) clearly defined objectives (stated in terms of what students will do) for each
knowledge unit, (3) planned distribution of practice to build fluency and retention, and (4)
planned work on new examples (e.g., words, text) to foster application or generalization of
previously taught knowledge.
9. What happens during the pre-reading stage?
The pre-reading stage can be characterized as the time before children begin school,
when they learn to understand and use spoken language and develop a beginning understanding
of the sound structure of words.
10. Describe the findings of Hart and Risley and what important factor their findings explain.
Hart and Risley used the data from their observations to calculate that children of professionals
over the first four years of life heard approximately 48 million words. In contrast, children in low
socioeconomic homes heard only 13 million words (1995). Differences in parent–child
interactions explain the great gaps in vocabulary acquisition often seen when children enter
kindergarten.
11. What is meant by “breaking the code”?
Breaking the code refers to children learning the relationships between letters and the
sounds that they represent, and begin able to apply this knowledge to read words.
12. What is the difference between the early part of the beginning reading stage and the later
part of the beginning reading stage?
During the early part of the beginning stage, children learn the relationships between individual
letters and the sounds the letters represent and learn how to use this information to accurately
read individual words and then words in text. The latter part of the beginning reading stage refers
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to the time when phonics instruction expands from a focus on individual letters that make up a
word to groups of letters.
13. Why is the beginning reading stage very important?
Children who do not make major steps in breaking the code by the end of first grade are
greatly at risk of encountering ongoing frustration and failure in upper grades.
to the time when phonics instruction expands from a focus on individual letters that make up a
word to groups of letters.
13. Why is the beginning reading stage very important?
Children who do not make major steps in breaking the code by the end of first grade are
greatly at risk of encountering ongoing frustration and failure in upper grades.
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Chapter 3: Classroom Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. How does having a well-constructed reading program help a teacher when teaching lessons?
2. What is a major advantage and a major disadvantage of comprehensive core reading
programs?
3. How are comprehensive core programs published in 2002 and after different than previously
published programs?
4 Even though comprehensive core reading programs published in 2002 and after are more
aligned with the research, there are problems that detract from their effectiveness with at-risk
children. Indicate three of these problems.
5. Indicate when the use of supplemental materials can be problematic for the child functioning
below grade level.
6. Intervention programs and materials designed for children performing below grade level must
be highly ________________.
7. Describe the two types of intervention materials.
8. How is an intervention-program different than a comprehensive core program in regard to
content that is taught?
9. What is the most powerful evidence of the potential effectiveness of a reading program?
10. Many comprehensive core reading programs will need modifications to meet the needs of at-
risk students. List six common problems that will require modification.
11. Explain the potential major problem of checklist systems that were used for examining a
reading program.
12. What does a screening assessment administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher?
13. What does a program specific placement assessment do?
14. What is the danger of relying too heavily on screening assessment results?
15. Curriculum-based assessments may indicate that children are at low risk, some risk and high
risk. What do these terms mean?
16. What are program-specific progress monitoring assessments?
17. Which students should be assessed most frequently during the school year?
18. What is a diagnostic assessment and to whom should diagnostic assessments generally be
administered?
Chapter 3: Classroom Reading Instruction
Study Questions
1. How does having a well-constructed reading program help a teacher when teaching lessons?
2. What is a major advantage and a major disadvantage of comprehensive core reading
programs?
3. How are comprehensive core programs published in 2002 and after different than previously
published programs?
4 Even though comprehensive core reading programs published in 2002 and after are more
aligned with the research, there are problems that detract from their effectiveness with at-risk
children. Indicate three of these problems.
5. Indicate when the use of supplemental materials can be problematic for the child functioning
below grade level.
6. Intervention programs and materials designed for children performing below grade level must
be highly ________________.
7. Describe the two types of intervention materials.
8. How is an intervention-program different than a comprehensive core program in regard to
content that is taught?
9. What is the most powerful evidence of the potential effectiveness of a reading program?
10. Many comprehensive core reading programs will need modifications to meet the needs of at-
risk students. List six common problems that will require modification.
11. Explain the potential major problem of checklist systems that were used for examining a
reading program.
12. What does a screening assessment administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher?
13. What does a program specific placement assessment do?
14. What is the danger of relying too heavily on screening assessment results?
15. Curriculum-based assessments may indicate that children are at low risk, some risk and high
risk. What do these terms mean?
16. What are program-specific progress monitoring assessments?
17. Which students should be assessed most frequently during the school year?
18. What is a diagnostic assessment and to whom should diagnostic assessments generally be
administered?
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19. What is a prime consideration in allocating the number of minutes scheduled daily for reading
instruction?
20. When during their school career is it best to identify children who are at-risk of reading
failure?
21. What is meant by the term “student’s instructional level”?
22. What is homogenous grouping?
23. How can homogeneous grouping be misused?
24. What are the advantages of homogenous grouping?
25. What is a critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well
implemented throughout the school year?
26. What factors should be considered in determining the number of children in an instructional
group?
27. Where in a reading group is the best place to seat instructionally-naive students?
19. What is a prime consideration in allocating the number of minutes scheduled daily for reading
instruction?
20. When during their school career is it best to identify children who are at-risk of reading
failure?
21. What is meant by the term “student’s instructional level”?
22. What is homogenous grouping?
23. How can homogeneous grouping be misused?
24. What are the advantages of homogenous grouping?
25. What is a critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well
implemented throughout the school year?
26. What factors should be considered in determining the number of children in an instructional
group?
27. Where in a reading group is the best place to seat instructionally-naive students?
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Study Question Answers—Chapter 3
1. How does having a well-constructed reading program help a teacher when teaching lessons?
A teacher with well-constructed instructional materials can more readily concentrate on the
students when teaching.
2. What is a major advantage and a major disadvantage of comprehensive core reading
programs?
The advantage of comprehensive-core programs is their inclusion of a wide range of content. This
advantage can also be a disadvantage if the program contains so many topics that priority
content does not receive deep coverage.
3. How are comprehensive core programs published in 2002 and after different than previously
published programs?
The programs published after 2002 are to some extent more aligned with the research.
4 Even though comprehensive core reading programs published in 2002 and after are more
aligned with the research, there are problems that detract from their effectiveness with at-risk
children. Indicate three of these problems.
Most programs do not carefully control the language and vocabulary used in teacher
presentations. The rate at which new information is introduced is often too fast for a child
with a limited literacy background. Practice and review is often now sufficient.
5. Indicate when the use of supplemental materials can be problematic for the child functioning
below grade level.
When there are too many different programs being used, the most instructionally naïve can
end up receiving the instruction that is not aligned as different strategies and sequences are
used to teach the same skills.
6. Intervention programs and materials designed for children performing below grade level must
be highly systematic and explicit.
7. Describe the two types of intervention materials.
1) Those that focus on just one or two components of reading instruction, and 2) those that
are more comprehensive, including skills from all five critical areas of reading instruction.
8. How is an intervention-program different than a comprehensive core program in regard to
content that is taught?
An intervention-core program focuses on the more essential skills from all five areas of
reading instruction.
9. What is the most powerful evidence of the potential effectiveness of a reading program?
Study Question Answers—Chapter 3
1. How does having a well-constructed reading program help a teacher when teaching lessons?
A teacher with well-constructed instructional materials can more readily concentrate on the
students when teaching.
2. What is a major advantage and a major disadvantage of comprehensive core reading
programs?
The advantage of comprehensive-core programs is their inclusion of a wide range of content. This
advantage can also be a disadvantage if the program contains so many topics that priority
content does not receive deep coverage.
3. How are comprehensive core programs published in 2002 and after different than previously
published programs?
The programs published after 2002 are to some extent more aligned with the research.
4 Even though comprehensive core reading programs published in 2002 and after are more
aligned with the research, there are problems that detract from their effectiveness with at-risk
children. Indicate three of these problems.
Most programs do not carefully control the language and vocabulary used in teacher
presentations. The rate at which new information is introduced is often too fast for a child
with a limited literacy background. Practice and review is often now sufficient.
5. Indicate when the use of supplemental materials can be problematic for the child functioning
below grade level.
When there are too many different programs being used, the most instructionally naïve can
end up receiving the instruction that is not aligned as different strategies and sequences are
used to teach the same skills.
6. Intervention programs and materials designed for children performing below grade level must
be highly systematic and explicit.
7. Describe the two types of intervention materials.
1) Those that focus on just one or two components of reading instruction, and 2) those that
are more comprehensive, including skills from all five critical areas of reading instruction.
8. How is an intervention-program different than a comprehensive core program in regard to
content that is taught?
An intervention-core program focuses on the more essential skills from all five areas of
reading instruction.
9. What is the most powerful evidence of the potential effectiveness of a reading program?
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The most powerful evidence regarding the potential of a reading program to be an effective
instructional tool is data on the student achievement that has been produced in schools that
used the program with a similar student and teacher population.
10. Many comprehensive core reading programs will need modifications to meet the needs of at-
risk students. List six common problems that will require modification.
1. Many programs include a large number of activities that would take many hours each day
to present; however, the program does not provide clear guidance regarding which tasks are
the more essential.
2. Some programs do include daily instruction in critical skills.
3. Some programs do not provide clear directions to teachers on how to overtly and clearly
teach specific skills and to make instruction sufficiently interactive.
4. Lack of sufficient number of assessments to help teachers in placing students in the
program at the beginning of the school year and monitoring the extent to which the students
are learning the content during the year.
5. Introduction of new information and skills at too fast a rate. Too much is introduced at
one time and too little practice is provided in order to enable students to develop mastery
before proceeding to more advanced topics.
6. Some programs do not carefully control the vocabulary or syntax the teacher uses when
presenting information to children.
11. Explain the potential major problem of checklist systems that were used for examining a
reading program.
The problem with these checklists is that the number of topics covered became the main factor in
program selection. Thus, reading programs that provided only superficial coverage of
critical content were given higher ratings than programs that had in-depth coverage of
critical content because the former covered a wider range of content, though most of it was
covered superficially.
12. What does a screening assessment administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher
Screening assessments are administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher a child’s
instructional level and the number of students who are performing at, below and above grade-
level performance
13. What does a program specific placement assessment do?
A program specific assessment indicates specifically at what lesson or level with a program a
student should be placed.
14. What is the danger of relying too heavily on screening assessment results?
The most powerful evidence regarding the potential of a reading program to be an effective
instructional tool is data on the student achievement that has been produced in schools that
used the program with a similar student and teacher population.
10. Many comprehensive core reading programs will need modifications to meet the needs of at-
risk students. List six common problems that will require modification.
1. Many programs include a large number of activities that would take many hours each day
to present; however, the program does not provide clear guidance regarding which tasks are
the more essential.
2. Some programs do include daily instruction in critical skills.
3. Some programs do not provide clear directions to teachers on how to overtly and clearly
teach specific skills and to make instruction sufficiently interactive.
4. Lack of sufficient number of assessments to help teachers in placing students in the
program at the beginning of the school year and monitoring the extent to which the students
are learning the content during the year.
5. Introduction of new information and skills at too fast a rate. Too much is introduced at
one time and too little practice is provided in order to enable students to develop mastery
before proceeding to more advanced topics.
6. Some programs do not carefully control the vocabulary or syntax the teacher uses when
presenting information to children.
11. Explain the potential major problem of checklist systems that were used for examining a
reading program.
The problem with these checklists is that the number of topics covered became the main factor in
program selection. Thus, reading programs that provided only superficial coverage of
critical content were given higher ratings than programs that had in-depth coverage of
critical content because the former covered a wider range of content, though most of it was
covered superficially.
12. What does a screening assessment administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher
Screening assessments are administered at the beginning of the year tell the teacher a child’s
instructional level and the number of students who are performing at, below and above grade-
level performance
13. What does a program specific placement assessment do?
A program specific assessment indicates specifically at what lesson or level with a program a
student should be placed.
14. What is the danger of relying too heavily on screening assessment results?
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Children may perform poorly on a test given the first days of school, but then after some days
of instruction show they can perform at a much higher level than their performance on a
screening indicated.
15. Curriculum-based assessments may indicate that children are at low risk, some risk and high
risk. What do these terms mean?
Low risk students are likely to be successful in the future given normal instruction.
Some risk students will need some extra instruction to be successful.
High-risk students will need highly intensive and highly systematic and explicit program of
instruction in order to be successful.
16. What are program-specific progress monitoring assessments?
Program-specific progress monitoring assessments are designed to indicate whether children are
learning what is being taught in the program.
17. Which students should be assessed most frequently during the school year?
Students at high risk.
18. What is a diagnostic assessment and to whom should diagnostic assessments generally be
administered?
Diagnostic assessments are in-depth assessments designed to provide a teacher with information
on how a student performs on a wider range of critical skills than a screening test or
progress-monitoring test provides. Diagnostic assessments are given to students who are
below grade level at the beginning of the school year and to students who struggle during the
school year.
19. What is a prime consideration in allocating the number of minutes scheduled daily for reading
instruction?
In allocating the number of minutes that is to be scheduled daily for reading instruction, a prime
consideration should be how much content and information students need to learn in order to
reach grade-level performance standards.
20. When during their school career is it best to identify children who are at-risk of reading
failure?
Children who are at-risk of reading failure need to be identified when beginning kindergarten (or
ideally preschool). An intensive program of instruction that begins in kindergarten can have a
powerful effect on a student’s academic career by avoiding failure.
21. What is meant by the term “student’s instructional level”?
When a student is at his or her instructional level, the student has sufficient knowledge of earlier
content so that the students can reasonably be brought to mastery on new content while
Children may perform poorly on a test given the first days of school, but then after some days
of instruction show they can perform at a much higher level than their performance on a
screening indicated.
15. Curriculum-based assessments may indicate that children are at low risk, some risk and high
risk. What do these terms mean?
Low risk students are likely to be successful in the future given normal instruction.
Some risk students will need some extra instruction to be successful.
High-risk students will need highly intensive and highly systematic and explicit program of
instruction in order to be successful.
16. What are program-specific progress monitoring assessments?
Program-specific progress monitoring assessments are designed to indicate whether children are
learning what is being taught in the program.
17. Which students should be assessed most frequently during the school year?
Students at high risk.
18. What is a diagnostic assessment and to whom should diagnostic assessments generally be
administered?
Diagnostic assessments are in-depth assessments designed to provide a teacher with information
on how a student performs on a wider range of critical skills than a screening test or
progress-monitoring test provides. Diagnostic assessments are given to students who are
below grade level at the beginning of the school year and to students who struggle during the
school year.
19. What is a prime consideration in allocating the number of minutes scheduled daily for reading
instruction?
In allocating the number of minutes that is to be scheduled daily for reading instruction, a prime
consideration should be how much content and information students need to learn in order to
reach grade-level performance standards.
20. When during their school career is it best to identify children who are at-risk of reading
failure?
Children who are at-risk of reading failure need to be identified when beginning kindergarten (or
ideally preschool). An intensive program of instruction that begins in kindergarten can have a
powerful effect on a student’s academic career by avoiding failure.
21. What is meant by the term “student’s instructional level”?
When a student is at his or her instructional level, the student has sufficient knowledge of earlier
content so that the students can reasonably be brought to mastery on new content while
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maintaining a reasonable success rate. A student is usually at his or her instructional level
when the student can respond with about an 85% success rate to all exercises in the lesson
and can readily be brought to 100% accuracy on all exercises by the end of the lesson.
22. What is homogenous grouping?
Homogenous grouping involves creating instructional groups in which all children are at the
same instructional level.
23. How can homogeneous grouping be misused?
Homogeneous grouping is misused when it leads to tracking where lower-performing students are
placed and maintained in settings that do not bring out their full potential to learn.
24. What are the advantages of homogenous grouping?
If used well, homogeneous grouping can lead to acceleration of student progress and higher
success levels for students. Acceleration is possible because during the small group, the child
can be more actively involved, and the teacher does not have to make significant compromises
in between meeting the needs of higher performers and lower performers. Higher success
levels are possible because the teacher will more readily be able to spot and immediately
correct any confusion or misinterpretation a student makes.
25. What is a critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well
implemented throughout the school year?
A critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well implemented is that
placement in groups must be flexible. That means that during the school year a child's
placement in a group is not fixed, but will be changed based on the child's periodic
performance.
26. What factors should be considered in determining the number of children in an instructional
group?
The number of children in an instructional group should depend on the instructional
sophistication of the students. Children who are instructionally sophisticated, attentive to
teacher's instruction and not likely to become confused easily can be taught in instructional
groups with more children. Children who are less attentive to teacher instruction, more likely
to be easily distracted and are likely to need more practice trials to master content should be
in instructional groups composed of fewer children.
27.Where in a reading group is the best place to seat instructionally-naive students?
More distractible students should be seated closest to the teacher to make it easier for the teacher
to monitor their performance and give encouraging pats or handshakes.
maintaining a reasonable success rate. A student is usually at his or her instructional level
when the student can respond with about an 85% success rate to all exercises in the lesson
and can readily be brought to 100% accuracy on all exercises by the end of the lesson.
22. What is homogenous grouping?
Homogenous grouping involves creating instructional groups in which all children are at the
same instructional level.
23. How can homogeneous grouping be misused?
Homogeneous grouping is misused when it leads to tracking where lower-performing students are
placed and maintained in settings that do not bring out their full potential to learn.
24. What are the advantages of homogenous grouping?
If used well, homogeneous grouping can lead to acceleration of student progress and higher
success levels for students. Acceleration is possible because during the small group, the child
can be more actively involved, and the teacher does not have to make significant compromises
in between meeting the needs of higher performers and lower performers. Higher success
levels are possible because the teacher will more readily be able to spot and immediately
correct any confusion or misinterpretation a student makes.
25. What is a critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well
implemented throughout the school year?
A critical condition that must be in place for homogenous grouping to be well implemented is that
placement in groups must be flexible. That means that during the school year a child's
placement in a group is not fixed, but will be changed based on the child's periodic
performance.
26. What factors should be considered in determining the number of children in an instructional
group?
The number of children in an instructional group should depend on the instructional
sophistication of the students. Children who are instructionally sophisticated, attentive to
teacher's instruction and not likely to become confused easily can be taught in instructional
groups with more children. Children who are less attentive to teacher instruction, more likely
to be easily distracted and are likely to need more practice trials to master content should be
in instructional groups composed of fewer children.
27.Where in a reading group is the best place to seat instructionally-naive students?
More distractible students should be seated closest to the teacher to make it easier for the teacher
to monitor their performance and give encouraging pats or handshakes.
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Chapter 4: Delivery of Instruction
Study Questions
1. Even with a well-designed instructional program, teachers will have to make adjustments
to instruction based on information from which two sources?
2. List six aspects of the program design components of direct instruction.
3. How should objectives be stated?
4. Why is it important to evaluate objectives according to their usefulness?
5. Instructional programs, whenever possible, should teach students to rely on strategies
rather than on requiring them to __________________.
6. What does a format include?
7. Why should teachers plan out formats for teaching a skill before presenting reading
lessons?
8. What are two important factors in constructing a format?
9. What are two problems that result when a format attempts to teach more than one new
skill at a time?
10. Describe the two types of formats that appear in this text.
11. Examples are appropriate if the student can use a known strategy and information that was
taught previously to come up with the correct answer. True or False
12. How are the examples selected for discrimination exercises? What examples should be
included?
13. Below are descriptions of 5 things a teacher did in creating a reading program. For each
action, write the number of the sequencing guideline below that was utilized.
14. What is the most critical sequencing principle?
15. A pattern of massed or concentrated practice when a skill is first introduced followed by
systematic review is critical for developing 1) ________ 2) ________ 3) ________.
16. What is a difference between how student responses are monitored during a lesson by
primary level teachers and by intermediate level teachers?
17. Why is much of the instruction in the learning-to-read stage suitable for unison
responding? Oral responding?
18. What are two advantages of unison oral responding?
Chapter 4: Delivery of Instruction
Study Questions
1. Even with a well-designed instructional program, teachers will have to make adjustments
to instruction based on information from which two sources?
2. List six aspects of the program design components of direct instruction.
3. How should objectives be stated?
4. Why is it important to evaluate objectives according to their usefulness?
5. Instructional programs, whenever possible, should teach students to rely on strategies
rather than on requiring them to __________________.
6. What does a format include?
7. Why should teachers plan out formats for teaching a skill before presenting reading
lessons?
8. What are two important factors in constructing a format?
9. What are two problems that result when a format attempts to teach more than one new
skill at a time?
10. Describe the two types of formats that appear in this text.
11. Examples are appropriate if the student can use a known strategy and information that was
taught previously to come up with the correct answer. True or False
12. How are the examples selected for discrimination exercises? What examples should be
included?
13. Below are descriptions of 5 things a teacher did in creating a reading program. For each
action, write the number of the sequencing guideline below that was utilized.
14. What is the most critical sequencing principle?
15. A pattern of massed or concentrated practice when a skill is first introduced followed by
systematic review is critical for developing 1) ________ 2) ________ 3) ________.
16. What is a difference between how student responses are monitored during a lesson by
primary level teachers and by intermediate level teachers?
17. Why is much of the instruction in the learning-to-read stage suitable for unison
responding? Oral responding?
18. What are two advantages of unison oral responding?
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19. What is a signal? What situation does the signal procedure help avoid during small group
instruction.
20. Describe each of the three steps in the unison response signaling procedure.
21. What is the essential characteristic of any good signal? How does that affect student
response?
22. When teachers are familiar with their material, what two things will they be able to do that
will make instruction more effective?
23. The critical aspect of pacing is the time lapse between when students respond and when
the teacher gives the directions for the next question. The directions for the next question or the
___________ to the current task should come _______________.
24. Tell what information a teacher can get by watching a student's mouth and eyes during
group instruction.
25. Explain how a teacher can focus primarily on the responses of lower-performing students
during small-group instruction.
26. During group instruction, teachers should generally give individual tests only after all the
group as a whole appears to have mastered examples. Explain why.
27. Individual turns are given to each student after every task. True or False?
28. The sooner a teacher detects a student's confusion, the easier it will be to remediate that
confusion. Explain why.
29. List the five steps that may be included in a correction procedure.
30. If a student makes an error during unison responding or during individual turns, to whom
is the correction procedure directed?
31. What is meant by the term “teaching to mastery?”
32. How is the correction procedure for higher order tasks different than that for simpler
tasks?
33. What are the two basic steps in motivating students who do not come to school with an
intrinsic desire to read?
34. What kind of on-going information is key to maximizing progress of all students?
35. What is the difference between mastery teaching during whole class and during small
group instruction?
19. What is a signal? What situation does the signal procedure help avoid during small group
instruction.
20. Describe each of the three steps in the unison response signaling procedure.
21. What is the essential characteristic of any good signal? How does that affect student
response?
22. When teachers are familiar with their material, what two things will they be able to do that
will make instruction more effective?
23. The critical aspect of pacing is the time lapse between when students respond and when
the teacher gives the directions for the next question. The directions for the next question or the
___________ to the current task should come _______________.
24. Tell what information a teacher can get by watching a student's mouth and eyes during
group instruction.
25. Explain how a teacher can focus primarily on the responses of lower-performing students
during small-group instruction.
26. During group instruction, teachers should generally give individual tests only after all the
group as a whole appears to have mastered examples. Explain why.
27. Individual turns are given to each student after every task. True or False?
28. The sooner a teacher detects a student's confusion, the easier it will be to remediate that
confusion. Explain why.
29. List the five steps that may be included in a correction procedure.
30. If a student makes an error during unison responding or during individual turns, to whom
is the correction procedure directed?
31. What is meant by the term “teaching to mastery?”
32. How is the correction procedure for higher order tasks different than that for simpler
tasks?
33. What are the two basic steps in motivating students who do not come to school with an
intrinsic desire to read?
34. What kind of on-going information is key to maximizing progress of all students?
35. What is the difference between mastery teaching during whole class and during small
group instruction?
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Study Question Answers—Chapter 4
1. Even with a well-designed instructional program, teachers will have to make adjustments
to instruction based on information from which two sources?
1. Information provided through day-to-day student performance.
2. Information provided through progress-monitoring assessments.
2. List six aspects of the program design components of direct instruction.
1. Specifying objectives
2. Devising instructional strategies
3. Developing teaching procedures
4. Selecting examples
5. Sequencing skills
6. Providing practice and review
3. How should objectives be stated?
Objectives should be stated as specific observable behaviors.
4. Why is it important to evaluate objectives according to their usefulness?
Objectives of a program should be carefully evaluated according to their usefulness. Since
teaching time is limited, skills should be listed in order of importance, with essential skills being
taught first.
5. Instructional programs, whenever possible, should teach students to rely on strategies
rather than on requiring them to memorize information.
6. What does a format include?
The formats include directions on what the teacher and the students are to say and do.
7. Why should teachers plan out formats for teaching a skill before presenting reading
lessons?
Detailed formats planned in advance of teaching allow the teacher to focus their full attention on
the students' performance.
8. What are two important factors in constructing a format?
Formats must be carefully constructed so that (1) the teacher's explanations can be easily
understood by the students and (2) they contain only one new skill.
Study Question Answers—Chapter 4
1. Even with a well-designed instructional program, teachers will have to make adjustments
to instruction based on information from which two sources?
1. Information provided through day-to-day student performance.
2. Information provided through progress-monitoring assessments.
2. List six aspects of the program design components of direct instruction.
1. Specifying objectives
2. Devising instructional strategies
3. Developing teaching procedures
4. Selecting examples
5. Sequencing skills
6. Providing practice and review
3. How should objectives be stated?
Objectives should be stated as specific observable behaviors.
4. Why is it important to evaluate objectives according to their usefulness?
Objectives of a program should be carefully evaluated according to their usefulness. Since
teaching time is limited, skills should be listed in order of importance, with essential skills being
taught first.
5. Instructional programs, whenever possible, should teach students to rely on strategies
rather than on requiring them to memorize information.
6. What does a format include?
The formats include directions on what the teacher and the students are to say and do.
7. Why should teachers plan out formats for teaching a skill before presenting reading
lessons?
Detailed formats planned in advance of teaching allow the teacher to focus their full attention on
the students' performance.
8. What are two important factors in constructing a format?
Formats must be carefully constructed so that (1) the teacher's explanations can be easily
understood by the students and (2) they contain only one new skill.
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9. What are two problems that result when a format attempts to teach more than one new
skill at a time?
1. When students have to learn two new skills at the same time, they are more likely
to fail because the learning load is twice as great as when one new skill is introduced.
2. When students fail, the teacher cannot readily tell which skill caused the failure;
this makes diagnosis and remediation difficult.
10. Describe the two types of formats that appear in this text.
1) The introductory format, in which a teacher introduces new information or
demonstrates the steps in a strategy and then provides structured guided practice in applying the
strategy
2) The discrimination format, in which a teacher presents a set of examples that provide
practice on applying the new strategy or identifying the new concept or piece of information from
previously introduced strategies, concepts, and pieces of information that are similar
11. Examples are appropriate if the student can use a known strategy and information that was
taught previously to come up with the correct answer. True or False
True
12. How are the examples selected for discrimination exercises? What examples should be
included?
Selecting appropriate examples for discrimination exercises involves creating a mix of examples.
In addition to examples applicable to the new strategy, other examples must also be included.
These other examples review previously taught strategies and are in some cases similar to the
new examples. A range of examples is necessary so that students are required to differentiate
when to use the new strategy and when to use previously taught strategies.
13. Below are descriptions of 5 things a teacher did in creating a reading program. For each
action, write the number of the sequencing guideline below that was utilized.
A. A teacher presents three letter words before six letter words. (4)
B. The teacher presents the word are months before presenting the word stew. (3)
C. The teacher presents the sound of the letter m before introducing the words mat,
mud, and mid. (1)
D. The teacher presents the words were and where weeks apart. (5)
E. The teacher presents the word chart before the word chef. (2)
Sequencing guidelines
1. Preskills of a strategy are taught before the strategy itself is presented.
9. What are two problems that result when a format attempts to teach more than one new
skill at a time?
1. When students have to learn two new skills at the same time, they are more likely
to fail because the learning load is twice as great as when one new skill is introduced.
2. When students fail, the teacher cannot readily tell which skill caused the failure;
this makes diagnosis and remediation difficult.
10. Describe the two types of formats that appear in this text.
1) The introductory format, in which a teacher introduces new information or
demonstrates the steps in a strategy and then provides structured guided practice in applying the
strategy
2) The discrimination format, in which a teacher presents a set of examples that provide
practice on applying the new strategy or identifying the new concept or piece of information from
previously introduced strategies, concepts, and pieces of information that are similar
11. Examples are appropriate if the student can use a known strategy and information that was
taught previously to come up with the correct answer. True or False
True
12. How are the examples selected for discrimination exercises? What examples should be
included?
Selecting appropriate examples for discrimination exercises involves creating a mix of examples.
In addition to examples applicable to the new strategy, other examples must also be included.
These other examples review previously taught strategies and are in some cases similar to the
new examples. A range of examples is necessary so that students are required to differentiate
when to use the new strategy and when to use previously taught strategies.
13. Below are descriptions of 5 things a teacher did in creating a reading program. For each
action, write the number of the sequencing guideline below that was utilized.
A. A teacher presents three letter words before six letter words. (4)
B. The teacher presents the word are months before presenting the word stew. (3)
C. The teacher presents the sound of the letter m before introducing the words mat,
mud, and mid. (1)
D. The teacher presents the words were and where weeks apart. (5)
E. The teacher presents the word chart before the word chef. (2)
Sequencing guidelines
1. Preskills of a strategy are taught before the strategy itself is presented.
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2. Instances that are consistent with the strategy are introduced before exceptions.
3. High utility skills are introduced before less useful ones.
4. Easy skills are taught before more difficult ones.
5. Strategies and information that are likely to be confused are not introduced at the
same time.
14. What is the most critical sequencing principle?
The most critical sequencing principle is teaching components of a strategy before the entire
strategy is introduced.
15. A pattern of massed or concentrated practice when a skill is first introduced followed by
systematic review is critical for developing: 1) accuracy, 2) fluency, and 3) retention.
16. What is a difference between how student responses are monitored during a lesson by
primary level teachers and by intermediate level teachers?
During early reading instruction, the teacher listens to oral responses and watches children's
mouths to see how they are pronouncing words.
Monitoring in the later grades focuses more on the teacher reviewing student written work, and
providing a combination of oral and written feedback.
17. Why is much of the instruction in the learning-to-read stage suitable for unison
responding? oral responding?
Most tasks have just one correct answer.
18. What are two advantages of unison oral responding?
1. All students actively practice each skill throughout an instructional period.
2. Unison responses provide the teacher with frequent information about each
student’s progress.
19. What is a signal? What situation does the signal procedure help avoid during small group
instruction.
A signal is a cue given by the teacher that tells students when to make a unison response. The
effective use of signals allows participation by all students, not just the higher performers who, if
allowed, tend to dominate the lower performing students.
20. Describe each of the three steps in the unison response signaling procedure.
1. The teacher gives directions.
2. The teacher provides a thinking pause.
3. The teacher cues the response.
2. Instances that are consistent with the strategy are introduced before exceptions.
3. High utility skills are introduced before less useful ones.
4. Easy skills are taught before more difficult ones.
5. Strategies and information that are likely to be confused are not introduced at the
same time.
14. What is the most critical sequencing principle?
The most critical sequencing principle is teaching components of a strategy before the entire
strategy is introduced.
15. A pattern of massed or concentrated practice when a skill is first introduced followed by
systematic review is critical for developing: 1) accuracy, 2) fluency, and 3) retention.
16. What is a difference between how student responses are monitored during a lesson by
primary level teachers and by intermediate level teachers?
During early reading instruction, the teacher listens to oral responses and watches children's
mouths to see how they are pronouncing words.
Monitoring in the later grades focuses more on the teacher reviewing student written work, and
providing a combination of oral and written feedback.
17. Why is much of the instruction in the learning-to-read stage suitable for unison
responding? oral responding?
Most tasks have just one correct answer.
18. What are two advantages of unison oral responding?
1. All students actively practice each skill throughout an instructional period.
2. Unison responses provide the teacher with frequent information about each
student’s progress.
19. What is a signal? What situation does the signal procedure help avoid during small group
instruction.
A signal is a cue given by the teacher that tells students when to make a unison response. The
effective use of signals allows participation by all students, not just the higher performers who, if
allowed, tend to dominate the lower performing students.
20. Describe each of the three steps in the unison response signaling procedure.
1. The teacher gives directions.
2. The teacher provides a thinking pause.
3. The teacher cues the response.
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26
21. What is the essential characteristic of any good signal? How does that affect student
response?
The essential characteristic of any good signal is its clarity. The signal must be given so that
students know exactly when they are expected to respond. If a signal is not clear, students will not
be able to respond together.
22. When teachers are familiar with their material, what two things will they be able to do that
will make instruction more effective?
Teachers who are well versed with their materials will not only be able to teach at a more lively
pace, but will also be able to focus their attention more fully on the students' performance.
23. The critical aspect of pacing is the time lapse between when students respond and when
the teacher gives the directions for the next question. The directions for the next question or the
correction to the current task should come immediately.
24. Tell what information a teacher can get by watching a student's mouth and eyes during
group instruction.
By watching the mouth, the teacher can determine if children have positioned their lips and
tongue in the position necessary to produce the correct response. The teacher watches the eyes of
the children to determine if they are attending.
25. Explain how a teacher can focus primarily on the responses of lower-performing students
during small-group instruction.
The teacher arranges the students’ seats so that the children who are more likely to have
difficulty are seated in or near the center of the group. She watches them for two or three
responses and then shifts her attention to the students on the left side of the group for a response
or two. Then she shifts her attention back to the students in the middle for several responses
before watching the students on the right side. By always returning to the students in the middle
and watching them respond, the teacher monitors their responses about twice as often as
responses of the higher-performing students seated on either side.
26. During group instruction, teachers should generally give individual tests only after all the
group as a whole appears to have mastered examples. Explain why.
The teacher gives individual turns when the teacher feels the group has mastered all the steps in a
format. By providing adequate group practice before calling on individuals, the teacher avoids
needlessly embarrassing a student.
27. Individual turns are given to each student after every task. True or False? False.
28. The sooner a teacher detects a student's confusion, the easier it will be to remediate that
confusion. Explain why.
The sooner a teacher detects an error the easier it will be to remedy that error. Each day a
student’s confusion goes undetected the student is, in essence, receiving practice doing something
21. What is the essential characteristic of any good signal? How does that affect student
response?
The essential characteristic of any good signal is its clarity. The signal must be given so that
students know exactly when they are expected to respond. If a signal is not clear, students will not
be able to respond together.
22. When teachers are familiar with their material, what two things will they be able to do that
will make instruction more effective?
Teachers who are well versed with their materials will not only be able to teach at a more lively
pace, but will also be able to focus their attention more fully on the students' performance.
23. The critical aspect of pacing is the time lapse between when students respond and when
the teacher gives the directions for the next question. The directions for the next question or the
correction to the current task should come immediately.
24. Tell what information a teacher can get by watching a student's mouth and eyes during
group instruction.
By watching the mouth, the teacher can determine if children have positioned their lips and
tongue in the position necessary to produce the correct response. The teacher watches the eyes of
the children to determine if they are attending.
25. Explain how a teacher can focus primarily on the responses of lower-performing students
during small-group instruction.
The teacher arranges the students’ seats so that the children who are more likely to have
difficulty are seated in or near the center of the group. She watches them for two or three
responses and then shifts her attention to the students on the left side of the group for a response
or two. Then she shifts her attention back to the students in the middle for several responses
before watching the students on the right side. By always returning to the students in the middle
and watching them respond, the teacher monitors their responses about twice as often as
responses of the higher-performing students seated on either side.
26. During group instruction, teachers should generally give individual tests only after all the
group as a whole appears to have mastered examples. Explain why.
The teacher gives individual turns when the teacher feels the group has mastered all the steps in a
format. By providing adequate group practice before calling on individuals, the teacher avoids
needlessly embarrassing a student.
27. Individual turns are given to each student after every task. True or False? False.
28. The sooner a teacher detects a student's confusion, the easier it will be to remediate that
confusion. Explain why.
The sooner a teacher detects an error the easier it will be to remedy that error. Each day a
student’s confusion goes undetected the student is, in essence, receiving practice doing something
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27
the wrong way. For each day a student remains confused, a teacher may have to spend several
days reteaching that skill to ameliorate the confusion. Thus, careful monitoring is a prerequisite
for efficient instruction.
29. List the five steps that may be included in a correction procedure.
The correction procedure for incorrect responses during small-group instruction in the primary
grades consists of as many as five steps: model, lead, test, firm up, and delayed test.
30. If a student makes an error during unison responding or during individual turns, to whom
is the correction procedure directed?
Corrections are directed to the entire group. When an individual makes an error, the teacher
does not single out the child, but directs the correction the group and has the entire group
respond.
31. What is meant by the term “teaching to mastery?”
Teaching to mastery enables all children to master all the content as they progress from task to
task and lesson to lesson. This process is referred to as teaching to mastery.
32. How is the correction procedure for higher order tasks different than that for simpler
tasks?
The correction procedure for higher order tasks is somewhat different in that rather than
modeling the answer, the teacher would lead the students through a series of thinking steps (e.g.,
Think Aloud) to determine the answer.
33. What are the two basic steps in motivating students who do not come to school with an
intrinsic desire to read?
1. A first step in motivating these students is demonstrating to them that they can
succeed in reading. This is done by carefully designing and effectively presenting lessons.
2. Second, the teacher should provide high level reinforcement for being attentive
and participating in instruction. At first, with younger students, she may use extrinsic
rewards such as physical contact, pats, and handshakes or types of token
34. What kind of on-going information is key to maximizing progress of all students?
Using information from assessments and from student performance during lessons to inform
instruction is key to maximizing progress for all students.
35. What is the difference between mastery teaching during whole class and during small
group instruction?
During whole class instruction, if there are children who are performing significantly below the
majority of the class, the teacher would not spend inordinate amounts of time during whole-class
instruction repeating tasks until these children are firm. This repetition could result in other
the wrong way. For each day a student remains confused, a teacher may have to spend several
days reteaching that skill to ameliorate the confusion. Thus, careful monitoring is a prerequisite
for efficient instruction.
29. List the five steps that may be included in a correction procedure.
The correction procedure for incorrect responses during small-group instruction in the primary
grades consists of as many as five steps: model, lead, test, firm up, and delayed test.
30. If a student makes an error during unison responding or during individual turns, to whom
is the correction procedure directed?
Corrections are directed to the entire group. When an individual makes an error, the teacher
does not single out the child, but directs the correction the group and has the entire group
respond.
31. What is meant by the term “teaching to mastery?”
Teaching to mastery enables all children to master all the content as they progress from task to
task and lesson to lesson. This process is referred to as teaching to mastery.
32. How is the correction procedure for higher order tasks different than that for simpler
tasks?
The correction procedure for higher order tasks is somewhat different in that rather than
modeling the answer, the teacher would lead the students through a series of thinking steps (e.g.,
Think Aloud) to determine the answer.
33. What are the two basic steps in motivating students who do not come to school with an
intrinsic desire to read?
1. A first step in motivating these students is demonstrating to them that they can
succeed in reading. This is done by carefully designing and effectively presenting lessons.
2. Second, the teacher should provide high level reinforcement for being attentive
and participating in instruction. At first, with younger students, she may use extrinsic
rewards such as physical contact, pats, and handshakes or types of token
34. What kind of on-going information is key to maximizing progress of all students?
Using information from assessments and from student performance during lessons to inform
instruction is key to maximizing progress for all students.
35. What is the difference between mastery teaching during whole class and during small
group instruction?
During whole class instruction, if there are children who are performing significantly below the
majority of the class, the teacher would not spend inordinate amounts of time during whole-class
instruction repeating tasks until these children are firm. This repetition could result in other
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28
children becoming inattentive and embarrass the children having difficulty. Instead, the teacher
would work with the struggling students during a small group session at another time.
children becoming inattentive and embarrass the children having difficulty. Instead, the teacher
would work with the struggling students during a small group session at another time.
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29
PART 2 - BEGINNING READING: THE FIRST MONTHS OF INSTRUCTION
Chapter 5: An Overview of Beginning Reading
Study Questions
1. What do the authors refer to as the beginning reading stage?
2. How long may the beginning stage last?
3. What is meant by the "most common sound" of a letter?
4. What is a continuous sound? What is a stop sound?
5. What is the difference between regular words and irregular words?
6. What is a consonant blend?
7. Classify each word as cvc, cvcc, ccvc, ccvcc.
1.bled 2. sad 3.tramp 4. last
8. What is the basic difference between code-emphasis and meaning-emphasis programs
during the beginning stage?
9. Describe how the whole language approach is the same and how if differs from the earlier
“look say” programs.
10. In a meaning-emphasis approach, what strategies are students encouraged to use to read
words?
PART 2 - BEGINNING READING: THE FIRST MONTHS OF INSTRUCTION
Chapter 5: An Overview of Beginning Reading
Study Questions
1. What do the authors refer to as the beginning reading stage?
2. How long may the beginning stage last?
3. What is meant by the "most common sound" of a letter?
4. What is a continuous sound? What is a stop sound?
5. What is the difference between regular words and irregular words?
6. What is a consonant blend?
7. Classify each word as cvc, cvcc, ccvc, ccvcc.
1.bled 2. sad 3.tramp 4. last
8. What is the basic difference between code-emphasis and meaning-emphasis programs
during the beginning stage?
9. Describe how the whole language approach is the same and how if differs from the earlier
“look say” programs.
10. In a meaning-emphasis approach, what strategies are students encouraged to use to read
words?
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30
Study Question Answers—Chapter 5
1. What do the authors refer to as the beginning reading stage?
The beginning reading stage refers to the period when students are learning the first several
hundred words presented in the classroom reading program.
2. How long may the beginning stage last?
Some students may come to school able to read many words. For these students, little instruction
may be needed for them to complete the beginning stage. Other students will enter school with
very little ability to read words. These students may require anywhere from 6 months to 1 year of
instruction before completing the beginning stage.
3. What is meant by the "most common sound" of a letter?
The most common sound of a letter is the sound that a letter most usually represents when it
appears in a short, one-syllable word.
4. What is a continuous sound? What is a stop sound?
A continuous sound is a sound that can be said for several seconds without distorting the sound.
A stop sound can be said for only an instant.
5. What is the difference between regular words and irregular words?
A regular word is any word in which each letter represents its respective, most common sound.
For example, the words am, cat, mud, best, and flag are regular words because each letter
represents its most common sound.
During the beginning reading stage, any word in which one or more letters does not represent its
most common sound will be considered an irregular word. The word was is irregular because the
letters a and s do not represent their most common sounds.
6. What is a consonant blend?
A consonant blend occurs when 2 or 3 consonants appear consecutively in a word and each
consonant represents its most common sound.
7. Classify each word as cvc, cvcc, ccvc, ccvcc.
1. bled (ccvc)
2. sad (cvc)
3. tramp (ccvcc)
4. last (cvcc)
8. What is the basic difference between code-emphasis and meaning-emphasis programs
during the beginning stage?
Study Question Answers—Chapter 5
1. What do the authors refer to as the beginning reading stage?
The beginning reading stage refers to the period when students are learning the first several
hundred words presented in the classroom reading program.
2. How long may the beginning stage last?
Some students may come to school able to read many words. For these students, little instruction
may be needed for them to complete the beginning stage. Other students will enter school with
very little ability to read words. These students may require anywhere from 6 months to 1 year of
instruction before completing the beginning stage.
3. What is meant by the "most common sound" of a letter?
The most common sound of a letter is the sound that a letter most usually represents when it
appears in a short, one-syllable word.
4. What is a continuous sound? What is a stop sound?
A continuous sound is a sound that can be said for several seconds without distorting the sound.
A stop sound can be said for only an instant.
5. What is the difference between regular words and irregular words?
A regular word is any word in which each letter represents its respective, most common sound.
For example, the words am, cat, mud, best, and flag are regular words because each letter
represents its most common sound.
During the beginning reading stage, any word in which one or more letters does not represent its
most common sound will be considered an irregular word. The word was is irregular because the
letters a and s do not represent their most common sounds.
6. What is a consonant blend?
A consonant blend occurs when 2 or 3 consonants appear consecutively in a word and each
consonant represents its most common sound.
7. Classify each word as cvc, cvcc, ccvc, ccvcc.
1. bled (ccvc)
2. sad (cvc)
3. tramp (ccvcc)
4. last (cvcc)
8. What is the basic difference between code-emphasis and meaning-emphasis programs
during the beginning stage?
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31
Code-emphasis programs initially select words made up of letters and letter combinations
representing the same sound in different words. In contrast, meaning-emphasis programs initially
select words that appear frequently in print regardless of their letter-sound irregularity. Unlike
the code-emphasis programs, the meaning-emphasis programs do not control words so that the
same letter represents the same sound in most initially appearing words
9. Describe how the whole language approach is the same and how if differs from the earlier
“look say” programs.
In whole language, words are not systematically introduced; instead, authentic literature is
selected, and students are to read whatever words are in the text. Introduction of words is not
systematic. The “look-say” programs introduced words in a specified sequence and words were
systematically reviewed. Neither program introduces words based on letter-sound
correspondence
10. In a meaning-emphasis approach, what strategies are students encouraged to use to read
words?
Students are encouraged to use a variety of strategies: looking at pictures, using the context of
the story, looking at the initial letter or the configuration of the word.
Code-emphasis programs initially select words made up of letters and letter combinations
representing the same sound in different words. In contrast, meaning-emphasis programs initially
select words that appear frequently in print regardless of their letter-sound irregularity. Unlike
the code-emphasis programs, the meaning-emphasis programs do not control words so that the
same letter represents the same sound in most initially appearing words
9. Describe how the whole language approach is the same and how if differs from the earlier
“look say” programs.
In whole language, words are not systematically introduced; instead, authentic literature is
selected, and students are to read whatever words are in the text. Introduction of words is not
systematic. The “look-say” programs introduced words in a specified sequence and words were
systematically reviewed. Neither program introduces words based on letter-sound
correspondence
10. In a meaning-emphasis approach, what strategies are students encouraged to use to read
words?
Students are encouraged to use a variety of strategies: looking at pictures, using the context of
the story, looking at the initial letter or the configuration of the word.
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