Class Notes for Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 9th Edition

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter Overview:
This chapter introduces the concept of social scientific research and gives a broad overview of
what this book will discuss, chapter by chapter. It also describes qualitative methods and
qualitative data, the use of triangulation in research, and the symbolic interactionist perspective.
This chapter also discusses why qualitative research is a prominent area in the social sciences.
Learning Objectives:
1.1: Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative methods in research
1.2: Describe how the triangulation methodology is used in research
1.3: Analyze the general purpose of qualitative data
1.4: Examine symbolic interactionism as a school of thought of the social sciences
1.5: Recognize the significance of the right tools for effective qualitative research
1.6: Report how the book helps students of the social sciences
Chapter Outline
1. Qualitative Methods, Qualitative Data
a. Meaning of the word “quality”
b. Qualitative vs. quantitative research
c. Norms
d. Garfinkel
2. Use of Triangulation in Research Methodology
a. Definition of triangulation
b. Importance of triangulation of related methods
c. Types of triangulation
i. Data
ii. Investigator
iii. Theory
iv. Methodological
3. Qualitative Strategies: Defining an Orientation
a. Goal of Qualitative Research
b. Qualitative Examination Method
c. Definition of Symbolic Interactionism
4. From a Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
a. Goal of Symbolic Interactionism
b. Blumer/Chicago School Symbolic Interactionism
i. Focus on anthropological participant observation
ii. How people define scenario constitutes reality
c. Kuhm/Iowa School of Symbolic Interactionism
i. Focus on generalizable research of operationalized concepts
ii. Stable structure creates predictable reactions in people

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d. Similarities
i. People use symbols to designate meaning to social objects and shape
interaction
ii. Humans can self-objectify through reflection
e. Differences
i. Blumer: Humans actively shape the way structures are created and
maintained
ii. Kuhn: Structure creates predictability of reaction in people
f. Goal of Each School
5. Why Use Qualitative Methods?
a. What qualitative captures that quantitative cannot
b. Why quantitative is not necessarily more accurate
6. A Plan of Presentation
a. Chapter 2: Basic research skills for novice
b. Chapter 3: Ethics
c. Chapter 4: Traditional interviewing techniques
d. Chapter 5: Focus groups
e. Chapter 6: Ethnography
f. Chapter 7: Participatory action research
g. Chapter 8: Unobtrusive measures
h. Chapter 9: Historiography
i. Chapter 10: Case study
j. Chapter 11: How to manage collected data
k. Chapter 12: Disseminating findings
Lecture Suggestions
1. Symbolic Interactionism: Chicago School vs. Iowa School
2. How to Choose Qualitative or Quantitative Methods
3. Triangulation and How to Combine Methods Effectively

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Chapter 2: Designing Qualitative Research
Chapter Overview:
This chapter offers a basic description of how to design a research project. It provides the basic
information necessary for understanding the research enterprise. This chapter discusses the
research process and proposes a spiraling model to follow when developing a research agenda.
Chapter 2 also offers advice about how to organize and conduct a literature review. Additionally,
this chapter examines topics such as operationalization, conceptualization, and how to frame a
project.
Learning Objectives:
2.1: Evaluate the applicability of theory and concepts in qualitative research
2.2: Explain how research progresses from the original idea
2.3: Describe the importance of authentic literature in research
2.4: Give an example of a problem-statement with researchable questions
2.5: Describe the process of operationally defining a concept
2.6: Examine how the technique of concept mapping assists the research design process
2.7: Recognize the importance of advance planning before beginning the data-collection
process
2.8: Describe the three concurrent flows of action comprising data analysis
2.9: Explain why dissemination of research findings is important
2.10: Analyze why the design logic is important in understanding research
2.11: Recognize why research fails at times
Chapter Outline
1. Theory and Concepts
a. Patterns in social life
b. Meaning underlying patterns
c. Theory to explain meaning
d. Concepts defined by theory
i. Symbolic element
ii. Definitional element
e. Propositions explain relationships between concepts
f. Hypotheses test propositions about research concepts
2. Ideas and Theory
a. Relationship between idea and theory
b. Theory-before-research methodology
c. Research-before-theory methodology
d. Linear progression of research
e. Spiral progression of research
3. Reviewing the Literature
a. Rough idea

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b. Locate relevant databases, periodicals, books
c. Develop variety of subject terms to search
d. Investigate variety of topic key words
e. Evaluating Web sites
i. Legitimacy
ii. Large missed body of work
iii. Whose Web site is it, and what’s in the URL?
iv. What is the nature of the domain?
v. Is material current or dated?
vi. Can the information be corroborated?
f. Content versus use
i. How to take notes on research
1. What does material say?
2. How does this relate to my research?
ii. Take good notes
iii. Record full citation
iv. Identify major claims of work
v. Write out best quotes, definitions, unique findings
vi. Don’t paraphrase
vii. Save keywords for each work
viii. Sort notes into categories on key word
g. How to use your notes
i. Create solid ground to base new work upon
ii. Relate new idea to pillars of research
iii. Use classic works to establish conceptual framework
h. Create literature review
i. Dispel myths
ii. Explain competing conceptual frameworks
iii. Clarify focus of your work
iv. Justify assumptions
4. Trying It Out
a. Family Research Council
b. Searches on homelessness
5. Framing Research Problems
a. Create clear problem statement
b. Define several specific research questions
6. Operationalization and Conceptualization
a. Operationally define key terms
i. Define meaning of concept in study
ii. Create criteria to empirically measure concept
b. Use defined concept to design measuring technique
7. Designing Projects
a. Create plan for research
i. What type of information is gathered and how?

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ii. Where will research take place, and who will be the subject?
iii. Will you use single method or triangulation?
iv. Will you work alone or with other researcher?
v. Will you use one theory or multiple related?
vi. How much will it cost?
vii. What is appropriate data collection strategy?
viii. What will data look like?
ix. How will data be organized?
b. Determine pacing
c. Consider ethics
d. Concept mapping
i. Creating a concept map
ii. List concepts on one page
iii. Rearrange to move from abstract to specific
iv. Divide concepts into stacks
v. Move stacks into clusters
vi. Review literature and assign descriptions to clusters
vii. Add additional description
viii. View visual relationship between concepts
ix. Show map to others and refine
e. Setting and population appropriateness
i. Identify site that is reasonable in size and complexity
ii. Entry is possible
iii. Target population is available
iv. Study’s focus processes are available
v. Research can be conducted effectively
f. Sampling Strategies
i. Convenience samples
ii. Purposive samples
iii. Snowball samples
iv. Quota samples
8. Data Collection and Organization
a. What will research data look like?
b. How will data be organized for analysis?
9. Data Storage, Retrieval, and Analysis
a. Data reduction
b. Data display
c. Conclusions and verification
10. Dissemination
a. Presentations
b. Publications
11. Why It Works
a. Relationships between theories and concepts
b. Previous research

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12. Why It Fails
a. Bias
b. Poor measurement
13. Trying It Out
a. Asthma
b. Operational definitions
Lecture Suggestions
1. How to Structure Research: Comparing and Contrasting the Research-before-theory,
Theory-before-research, Linear Progression, and Spiral Methods
2. Research Strategies: How to Search and Identify Valid Sources
3. The Importance of Specificity to Allow Reproduction of Study and Define Concepts
4. Choosing a Sampling Strategy
5. Why It Works and Why It Fails
Class Activities
Activity 1: Using your favorite search engine on the Web, look up “Family Research Council.”
Take a look at the research data available at several of the hits that the search has found.
Consider the merits of the documents on each of these sites. Does the material seem biased?
Does the material sound reasonable? How heavily would you rely on this information in a report
or research? (LO 2.3: Describe the importance of authentic literature in research)
Activity 2: Locate the Index to the Social Sciences in a college or university library. Use the
index to find 10 sources of reference material for a potential study on homelessness. Now go to
the Web, and, using your favorite search engine, enter the search term “homelessness” to locate
10 additional reference items. Compare the two sets of materials. (LO 2.3: Describe the
importance of authentic literature in research)
Activity 3: Run a Web search on the term “asthma.” Now compare the different resources that
may be available if you add the search terms “peer reviewed” or “magazine.” Based on these
different answers, offer a conceptual definition of the term that would be suitable for research.
(LO 2.5: Describe the process of operationally defining a concept)
Activity 4: Identify six concepts and operationally define each. Be sure to consult relevant
literature before the terms are defined. Do not make up definitions off the top of your head.
When operationalizing how each concept will be measured, be certain these operations conform
to both relevant literature and the qualitative paradigm. (LO 2.5: Describe the process of
operationally defining a concept)
Key Terms
Theory: A system of logical statements or propositions that explain the relationship between two
or more objects, concepts, phenomena, or characteristics of humans.

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Concepts: Symbolic elements representing objects, properties, or features of objects, processes,
or phenomena that allow communication of thought.
Propositions: Concept clusters, or statements about the relationships between concepts.
Hypotheses: Testable propositions about the relations among research concepts.
Cognitive reality: The thoughts in your mind, in which anything is possible.
Sensory reality: The world around you, in which there are clear limitations and conditions are not
in your control.
Operational definition: A concrete intended meaning of a concept in relation to a particular study
that provides criteria for measuring the empirical existence of that concept.
Concept mapping: A technique used to pictorially represent ideas and their connections and
enhances understanding of relationships between ideas/concepts.
Sampling: A research technique in which a subset (the sample) of a larger population is used to
make inferences about the population as a whole.
Probability sampling: A research technique in which a sample is selected mathematically to
represent subgroups of some larger population.
Simple random sample: A sampling technique in which each element of the full population has
an equal and independent chance of inclusion in the eventual sample to be studied based on a full
listing of every element in the full population to be investigated.
Convenience sampling: A sampling technique relying on subjects who are close at hand or easily
accessible.
Purposive sampling: A sampling technique in which researchers use special knowledge or
expertise to select subjects who represent the population for inclusion in the sample.
Snowball sampling: A sampling technique in which a sample is obtained through respondent
referrals to obtain entrance to a difficult-to-access population by gaining participants from a
small group of original subjects who share similar characteristics.
Quota sampling: A sampling technique where the sample is designed to match the percentage of
certain named groupings in the general population studied.

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Chapter 3: Ethical Issues in Research
Chapter Overview:
This chapter considers a number of ethical concerns that are important for new investigators to
understand before actually conducting research. Among the salient issues considered are covert
versus overt research concerns, privacy rights, human subject institutional review boards, and
informed consent in human subject research. Additionally, this chapter reviews new issues for
ethics, including cyberspace, and addresses problems with misconduct.
Learning Objectives:
3.1: Explain why questionable research practices involving humans signaled the need for
regulation
3.2: Determine how informed consent and implied consent are obtained in research
3.3: Outline how confidentiality and anonymity are maintained in research
3.4: Recognize the need for securing research data
3.5: Report classic cases of work where researchers violated ethical standards
3.6: Examine how the duties of institutional review boards safeguard the well-being of human
subjects
3.7: List codes of ethical conduct
3.8: Report ethical concerns in behavioral research
3.9: Examine two areas of ethical concerns in the anonymity of web-based data-collection
strategies
3.10: Recall the importance of careful research design
3.11: Analyze the need to safeguard against academic fraud in research
3.12: Recognize the importance of ethical consultants in protecting the well-being of research
subjects
3.13: Identify the reasons why researchers violate ethical standards
Chapter Outline
1. Research Ethics in Historical Perspective
a. Historical aspects
i. Nuremberg Code of 1949
1. Declaration of Helsinki
2. Ethical Guidelines for Clinical Investigation
ii. Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932)
b. Regulations in the research process
i. Statement by Surgeon General on Guidelines for Public Health Service (PHS)
Research (1966)
ii. The Institutional Guide to DHEW Policy on Protection of Human Subjects
(1971)
a. Requires committee review
b. Establishes idea of informed consent

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c. National Research Act (1974)
i. Creation of institutional review boards (IRBs)
ii. All research on human subjects must be reviewed by IRB
iii. Buckley Amendment (Family Educational Rights to Privacy Act)
iv. Privacy Acts of 1974
2. Informed Consent and Implied Consent
a. Informed consent statements
b. Ethical concerns
c. Under-sharing
d. Over-sharing
3. Confidentiality and Anonymity
a. Keeping identifying records
b. Strategies for safeguarding confidentiality
i. Federal Certificate of Confidentiality
ii. Limit time holding data
4. Securing the Data
a. Statement of confidentiality
5. Why Researchers Violate
a. Trade-offs between risks and benefits
b. Stanley Milgram
c. Zimbardo
d. CIA’s ARTICHOKE program
e. Laud Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade
6. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
a. Ideal goal of IRB
b. Potential negatives of IRB
c. IRBs and their duties
i. Fit of IRB and quantitative research
ii. Fit of IRB and qualitative research
iii. Difficult task of defining risk
d. Clarifying the role of IRBs
i. Expedited review
ii. Review risk versus moralizing
e. Active versus passive consent
f. Active versus passive consent in Internet research
g. Membership criteria for IRBs
i. Guidelines of who should be on board
ii. No guidelines on how to select, length of term, or research qualifications
7. Ethical Codes
a. Professional associations create codes of conduct
b. Avoid harm to human subjects
8. Some Common Ethical Concerns in Behavioral Research
a. “Non-reactivity” studies
b. Subjects must be voluntarily involved and informed of risks

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c. Are those who volunteer different from those who do not?
d. Are volunteer subjects coerced into participation?
e. Is informing of study increasing accountability?
f. Disadvantages of requiring voluntary, informed consent
g. Covert versus overt researcher roles
i. Researcher roles
ii. Complete participant
iii. Participant as observer
iv. Observer as participant
v. Complete observer
h. Ethics of covert research
i. Ethical relativist
ii. Ethical absolutist
iii. Hawthorne effect
iv. Breaking the law as complete participant
v. Subpoenaed information on subjects’ identities
vi. Gaining access to elite and powerful
9. New Areas for Ethical Concern: Cyberspace
a. How to maintain ethical integrity on the Internet
b. Positive of great anonymity
c. Protection for children
i. Strategies to screen out child participants on Internet
d. Debriefing the subjects
i. Strategies to maximize debriefing on Internet studies
10. Objectivity and Careful Research Design
a. Nurse researchers
b. Direct result of research
c. Protecting the interest of participants
d. Tension between academic freedom and law enforcement
11. Other Misconduct
a. Academic fraud
b. Motivation to act
12. Why It Works
a. Carefully planning
b. IRBs
13. Why It Fails
a. Unexpected issues and risks
b. Pressure to get around the IRB
14. Trying It Out
a. Proposal analysis

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Lecture Suggestions
1. The Institutional Review Board (IRB): Positives and Negatives in Research
2. Guidelines for Maintaining Ethical Boundaries in Research
3. Informed Consent: How to Inform What You’re Asking without Revealing Why
4. Choosing a Participant Observation Method
5. Strategies to Effectively Debrief Participants
6. Why Do Researchers Ever Act Unethically?
7. What New Ethical Issues Face Researchers?
Class Activities
Activity 1: You have been asked to sit on an institutional review board to consider a doctoral
student’s planned dissertation project. The summary for this research follows:
My proposed research will involve an observational study of children’s classroom behavior and
the effect of praise on student performance. I propose to use sixth grade students in a local public
school. I plan to enter the setting as a student teacher (the teacher of record will be told what my
real purpose is). I will then divide the class into two separate groups. One group of children I will
frequently compliment and praise for being smart, clever, intelligent, and good students. The
other group I will largely ignore, or when pressed, comment they are doing an adequate job. I
will collect field notes on how members of each group tend to interact with each other and their
teacher. I will additionally collect discrete data (their various exam and essay scores for the
class) to see if my use of positive labels affects their class performance.
After reading the foregoing summary of the proposal, answer the following questions:
1. What are some of the important ethical concerns to consider regarding this proposed
research project?
2. If you were the researcher, what might you do to respond to the comments made in
question 1?
3. What safeguards should the researcher take to protect the subjects in this particular
study?
Activity 2: Review Laud Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade. Break the class into two groups and have
each group discuss how the study could be repeated without the ethical concerns. Bring the class
together and have the groups compare their ideas. (LO 3.5: Report classic cases of work where
researchers violated ethical standards)
Activity 3: Break the class into four small groups. Group 1 is assigned to cyberspace, Group 2 is
assigned to medical experiments, Group 3 is assigned to non-reactivity studies, and Group 4 is
assigned to behavioral research. Each group will discuss the ethical concerns that appear with the
assigned topic. What strategies do researchers have to overcome these ethical concerns? Why
would a researcher commit ethical violations to conduct a study? (LO 3.8: Report ethical
concerns in behavioral research; 3.9: Examine two areas of ethical concerns in the anonymity of
web-based data-collection strategies)

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Key Terms
Active consent: Formal written permission by an informed parent or legal guardian that allows a
child to participate in a research project.
Passive consent: An assumption that parental permission for the child to participate in the study
is granted if the parents do not return a refusal form after being formed about the study’s
purpose.
Electronic interview: An agreement between the interviewer and subject, with informed consent
through use of private chat where interviewer and subject interact in real time, asking and
answering questions over the Internet.
Overt research: The researcher announces his or her presence to the group studied.
Covert research: The researcher is a secret part of the group, and may not make his or her intent
to conduct research known.
Complete participant: A covert researcher role in which the researcher enters a setting covertly
and seeks to engage fully in the activities of the group or organization under investigation.
Participant as observer: An overt researcher role when the researcher intends to conduct research,
but immerses fully in the activities of the group.
Observer as participant: An overt researcher role in which the researcher does not participate but
formally observes the group’s behavior.
Complete observer: An overt researcher role in which the researcher remains active in the
research setting for a long period of time, but does not participate in group activities or
interactions.
Ethical relativist: Researchers who believe they have a scientific right to study any group, even if
the group is not interested in being studied, in order to further scientific understanding.
Hawthorne effect: Subjects alter their behaviors when they learn they are being studied.
Ethical absolutist: A research perspective in which researchers have no right to invade people’s
privacy for scientific research; and that the deliberate deception of participants regarding the
researcher’s true intentions can always potentially harm the subjects.
Confidentiality: An active attempt to remove from the research any elements that might indicate
the subjects’ identities.
Anonymity: The subjects remain nameless.

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