Brock Biology of Microorganisms 12th Edition Test Bank

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Exam
Name___________________________________
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or
answers the question.
1) Which statement is not true as a general rule? 1) _______
A) Microbial cells carry out their life processes of growth
independently.
B) Microbial cells exist as single cells.
C) Microbial cells include both bacteria and viruses.
D) Microbial cells exclude the cells of plants and animals.
2) Basic microbiology can be used to 2) _______
A) probe the fundamental processes of life.
B) model our understanding of cellular processes in multicellular
organisms, including humans.
C) study characteristics of cells of multicellular organisms.
D) do all of the above.
3) Applied microbiology deals with important practical problems in 3) _______
A) industry. B) medicine.
C) agriculture. D) all of the above.
4) The largest mass of living material on Earth comes from 4) _______
A) plants. B) animals.
C) microorganisms. D) plants and animals together.
5) The cell's genome is stored in 5) _______
A) the nucleus or nucleoid. B) the cytoplasmic membrane.
C) the cytoplasm. D) none of the above.
6) Because the cell communicates, exchanges materials with its
environment, and undergoes evolution, it is called a(n)
6) _______
A) ancestral system. B) nucleoid system.
C) closed system. D) living system.
7) Changes in cellular characteristics are transmitted to offspring through
the process of
7) _______
A) chemical signaling. B) evolution.
C) reproductive initiative. D) none of the above.
8) Catalysts involved in the acceleration of the rate of chemical reactions
are called
8) _______
A) evolutionary molecules. B) catalytic converters.
C) growth agents. D) enzymes.
9) Regarding early life on Earth, 9) _______
A) microbial life existed long before animals but has been around for
about the same amount of time as plants.
B) microbial life existed for billions of years before plant and animal
life.
C) microbial life, plant life, and animal life all appeared at about the

same time.
D) it is impossible to determine which type of life first appeared.
10) Most prokaryotic cells reside 10) ______
A) in lakes, rivers, and oceans.
B) on Earth's surface.
C) in the oceanic and terrestrial subsurfaces.
D) in and on nonprokaryotic organisms (including humans and other
animals).
11) The person who described the "wee animalcules" was 11) ______
A) van Leeuwenhoek. B) Cohn.
C) Pasteur. D) Hooke.
12) Fannie Hesse is credited with giving __________ the idea to use agar as
a solidifying agent.
12) ______
A) Koch B) Cohn
C) Pasteur D) Winogradsky
13) Which of the following is/are characteristic of cellular organisms? 13) ______
A) communication
B) regeneration and reproduction
C) metabolism
D) all of the above
14) Which of the following is not a major ecosystem? 14) ______
A) atmospheric
B) aquatic
C) terrestrial
D) other organisms, such as plants and animals
15) Which statement is true? 15) ______
A) Microbial communities are assemblages of populations.
B) Populations are assemblages of microbial communities.
C) Populations are assemblages of habitats.
D) Habitats are assemblages of microbial communities.
16) During a very scientifically productive period in his life, Pasteur
developed vaccines for
16) ______
A) rabies. B) fowl cholera.
C) anthrax. D) all of the above.
17) The discovery of antibiotics and other important chemicals led to the
field of
17) ______
A) industrial microbiology. B) aquatic microbiology.
C) marine microbiology. D) agricultural microbiology.
18) Microbial sterilization is used to 18) ______
A) clean a work area.
B) kill all microbes in or on objects.
C) kill bacteria but not necessarily viruses or other microbes.
D) decrease the possibility of contaminants growing in a culture.

19) Transparent double-sided dishes used for growing microbes are most
commonly called
19) ______
A) culture medium plates. B) Petri dishes.
C) sterilization plates. D) baker dishes.
20) Microbes playing a role in nitrogen fixation in plants live in __________,
while those playing a role in the digestive tract of certain herbivores live
in __________.
20) ______
A) nodules / fortrans B) rumens / nodules
C) nodules / rumens D) fortrans / rumens
21) Genetic engineering could best be described as 21) ______
A) treatment of diseases with synthetic drugs.
B) the expansion of biomass to meet specific needs.
C) the creation of life from nonlife.
D) the artificial manipulation of genes and gene products.
22) The ultimate downfall of the theory of spontaneous generation was the
result of work by
22) ______
A) Pasteur. B) Hooke.
C) van Leeuwenhoek. D) Koch.
23) A Pasteur flask has a(n) 23) ______
A) inverted upper edge to prevent spillage while swirling.
B) secondary opening at the base to allow for drainage.
C) double neck so two substances may be added at the same time.
D) swan neck to prevent particulate matter from getting into the main
body of the flask.
24) Koch's greatest accomplishment in the field of medical bacteriology was
with
24) ______
A) Bacillus subtilis. B) Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
C) Escherichia coli. D) Bacillus cereus.
25) A pure culture 25) ______
A) is a population of identical cells.
B) was cultured for a certified stock culture.
C) is made of a clearly defined chemical medium.
D) is sterile.
26) Beijerinck was the first to isolate 26) ______
A) certain sulfate-reducing bacteria.
B) green algae.
C) certain nitrogen-fixing root nodule bacteria.
D) all of the above.
27) Chemolithotrophy involves 27) ______
A) oxidation of organic compounds.
B) metabolic autotrophy.
C) reduction of organic compounds.
D) oxidation of inorganic compounds.

28) Developments in the fields of immunology and medical microbiology
were practical extensions of the work of
28) ______
A) Lister. B) van Leeuwenhoek.
C) Koch. D) Winogradsky.
29) Microbial control in wastewaters would most logically be a part of 29) ______
A) bacterial energetics. B) aquatic microbiology.
C) microbial genetics. D) microbial technology.
30) Viruses that infect bacteria are known as 30) ______
A) microphages. B) bacteriophages.
C) bacterial consumers. D) viroids.
31) The science of grouping and classifying microorganisms is known as 31) ______
A) microbial physiology. B) proteomics.
C) microbial systematics. D) metabolomics.
32) Mycobacterium tuberculosis is very difficult to stain because of the 32) ______
A) large amounts of a waxy lipid present in its cell wall.
B) location of the DNA within the cell.
C) presence of ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
D) lack of a cell wall.
33) Pasteur's most famous success was his work on 33) ______
A) fermentation in the winemaking process.
B) optical isomers.
C) Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
D) the rabies vaccine.
34) Microorganisms play key roles in the cycling of important nutrients in
plant nutrition, particularly those of
34) ______
A) sulfur. B) nitrogen.
C) carbon. D) carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
35) Microbial ecology is the study of 35) ______
A) microbial processes in the soil that benefit plant growth.
B) microorganisms in their natural environments.
C) the grouping and classifying of microorganisms.
D) the diversity and activities of marine microorganisms.
36) The structure that confers structural strength on the cell and protects it
from osmotic lysis is known as the
36) ______
A) cell wall. B) cytoplasmic membrane.
C) ribosome. D) cytoplasm.
TRUE/FALSE. Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.
37) Without microorganisms, all higher life forms on Earth would cease to
exist.
37) ______
38) Most microorganisms are pathogenic. 38) ______

39) All microorganisms require molecular oxygen to carry on life functions. 39) ______
40) Metabolism is common to all cellular organisms. 40) ______
41) According to our present understanding, each of the major domains has
what is known as its own universal ancestor.
41) ______
42) Microbiology as a distinct science did not develop until the eighteenth
century.
42) ______
43) The environment in which a microbial population lives is its habitat. 43) ______
44) Differentiation occurs only in multicellular organisms. 44) ______
45) The study of nutrients that microorganisms require is known as
microbial systematics.
45) ______
46) Smallpox is a major killer in parts of the developing world. 46) ______
47) Winogradsky worked with bacteria involved in cycling nitrogen and
sulfur.
47) ______
48) Specific bacteria are linked to specific biogeochemical transformations. 48) ______
49) Marine microorganisms likely control many important global
parameters, including climate and atmospheric chemistry.
49) ______
SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers
the question.
50) The four macromolecules common to all cells are: __________,
__________, __________, and __________.
50) _____________
51) Our concept of what is a living organism is constrained by
__________.
51) _____________
52) The study of the structure of microorganisms would be a part of
microbial __________.
52) _____________
53) List three contributions of Ferdinand Cohn to the development
of microbiology.
53) _____________
54) The process whereby microorganisms are used to help clean up
pollution created by human activities is known as __________.
54) _____________
55) An ecosystem could be defined as __________ along with their
__________.
55) _____________
56) Robert Koch received the 1905 Nobel Prize for Physiology or
Medicine for __________.
56) _____________
57) The barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the outside
environment is known as the __________.
57) _____________

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58) Microbial biochemistry involves the discovery of __________
and the __________.
58) _____________
59) DNA sequencing has allowed for the development of the field
of __________ , which has itself spawned the subdisciplines of
__________ and __________.
59) _____________
60) The __________ is the fundamental unit of life. 60) _____________
61) The disease anthrax is caused by the organism __________,
which produces heat-resistant structures known as __________.
61) _____________
62) Groups of cells derived from a single parent cell by successive
cell divisions are known as __________ and they live in
environments known as __________.
62) _____________
63) The first self-replicating entities were probably __________. 63) _____________
64) __________ produced by microbial fermentation of glucose from
sugarcane or cornstarch is becoming a more important
component of fuels in the United States.
64) _____________
65) __________ was the first to describe microorganisms, while
__________ was the first person to see bacteria.
65) _____________
66) A population of identical cells is known as a(n) __________. 66) _____________
67) __________ described the first virus and also the basic principles
of virology.
67) _____________
68) The discoveries of Beijerinck and Winogradsky led to practical
advances in the field of __________.
68) _____________
69) Bacterial genetics became a major field of study within
microbiology following the discovery in the 1950s that
__________.
69) _____________
70) Bioremediation __________ by introducing
pollutant-consuming microorganisms or specific nutrients that
help microorganisms degrade pollutants.
70) _____________
71) Explain the nature and function of an enrichment culture. 71) _____________
72) Why is it incorrect to say that an object is partially sterile? 72) _____________
ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper.
73) Microbes were first formally observed in the mid-1600s, but the cell theory wasn't
enunciated until 1839. Write a brief essay explaining why microbiology did not
become a formally recognized science until Pasteur's and Koch's time.
74) Compare and contrast the works of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in terms of both

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applied and basic science.
75) Explain why microbial cells are excellent models for understanding cell function in
higher organisms.
76) Compare and contrast the leading causes of death in 1900 with the leading causes of
death today. What roles have microbiologists played in the dramatic changes that
are evident?
77) Consider hypothetical disease X. How would Koch's postulates be used to
demonstrate whether or not organism Y is the causative agent of disease X?
78) The text states that antibiotics are derived from microorganisms. What is the benefit
to an antibiotic-producing microorganism of producing an antibiotic in its natural
habitat?
79) Explain how bacteria can be both beneficial and detrimental to the food industry.
80) Provide evidence supporting the statement that an ecosystem is controlled by
microbial activities.
81) Explain why only anaerobic bacteria inhabited Earth for the first two billion years of
its existence.
82) How would the presence of endospores in Pasteur's nutrient solutions have affected
his conclusions about spontaneous generation?
83) Explain how you would use Koch's postulates to determine that Streptococcus
pyogenes is the causative agent of streptococcal pharyngitis ("strep throat").
84) Using specific examples, explain why it is sometimes impossible to satisfy Koch's
postulates.
85) Explain why infectious diseases are much less lethal in developed countries than in
underdeveloped countries.

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1) C
2) D
3) D
4) C
5) A
6) D
7) B
8) D
9) B
10) C
11) A
12) A
13) D
14) A
15) A
16) D
17) A
18) B
19) B
20) C
21) D
22) A
23) D
24) B
25) A
26) D
27) D
28) C
29) B
30) B
31) C
32) A
33) D
34) D
35) B
36) A
37) TRUE
38) FALSE
39) FALSE
40) TRUE
41) FALSE
42) FALSE
43) TRUE
44) FALSE
45) FALSE
46) FALSE
47) TRUE
48) TRUE
49) FALSE
50) proteins / lipids / carbohydrates / nucleic acids (any order)
51) what we can observe on Earth or deduce from the fossil record

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52) cytology
53) Answers could possibly include: founding bacteriology as a separate science, studying
Beggiatoa, discovering the genus Bacillus (along with its endospore formation and its life
cycle), devising methods to prevent contamination, and founding a major scientific journal.
54) bioremediation
55) living organisms / chemical and physical environments
56) his contributions on tuberculosis
57) cytoplasmic membrane
58) microbial enzymes / chemical reactions they carry out
59) genomics / proteomics / metabolomics (second and third in either order)
60) cell
61) Bacillus anthracis / endospores
62) (microbial) populations / (microbial) habitats
63) small molecules of RNA
64) Ethanol
65) Robert Hooke / Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
66) pure culture
67) Beijerinck
68) agricultural microbiology
69) genetic exchange occurred in bacteria
70) accelerates the natural cleanup process
71) Answers will vary, but an enrichment culture uses media, chemicals, or culture conditions
to select for or enhance specific characteristics of an organism.
72) Answers will vary, but sterile means the absence of living organisms. Something is either
sterile or it is not.
73) Answers will vary.
74) Answers will vary.
75) Answers will vary but should include commonality of function, biochemical and genetic
similarities, and ease and speed with which they can be grown in large quantities.
76) Answers will vary.
77) Answers will vary.
78) Answers will vary.
79) Answers will vary.
80) Answers will vary.
81) Answers will vary.
82) Answers will vary.
83) Answers will vary.
84) Answers will vary.
85) Answers will vary.

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Exam
Name___________________________________
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or
answers the question.
1) The presence of membrane-enclosed organelles is a characteristic of 1) _______
A) all cells. B) viruses.
C) eukaryotic cells. D) prokaryotic cells.
2) Which of the following are made up of prokaryotic cells? 2) _______
A) Archaea and fungi B) Bacteria and fungi
C) Bacteria and Archaea D) protozoa and animals
3) Protein-coding sequences of DNA are known as 3) _______
A) histones. B) chromosomes.
C) RNA segments. D) genes.
4) Based on our present understanding, which statement is probably true? 4) _______
A) Bacteria and Eukarya evolved from one line; Archaea had a totally
different ancestor.
B) Bacteria and Eukarya evolved from an archaeal ancestor.
C) Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya all diverged from a common
universal ancestor or community of organisms.
D) Bacteria and Archaea diverged from a Eukarya ancestor.
5) Disease-causing prokaryotes are found exclusively among the 5) _______
A) Archaea. B) viruses. C) fungi. D) Bacteria.
6) Organisms most likely to be found in extreme environments are 6) _______
A) Archaea. B) Bacteria. C) viruses. D) fungi.
7) The cyanobacteria are most closely related to the 7) _______
A) Eukarya. B) gram-negative Bacteria.
C) Archaea. D) gram-positive Bacteria.
8) Syphilis and Lyme disease are both caused by 8) _______
A) spirochetes.
B) endospores from the Bacillus group.
C) toxins from the Streptomyces.
D) mycoplasmas.
9) Which of the following organisms lives within the host cell as a means
of avoiding destruction by the host's immune response?
9) _______
A) Streptococcus sp. B) Chloroflexus sp.
C) Deinococcus radiodurans D) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
10) At the present time, __________ phyla of the Archaea have been
identified.
10) ______
A) 2 B) 4 C) 3 D) 5
11) Which statement is true about the genus Natronobacterium? 11) ______
A) They are alkaliphilic but not halophilic.

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B) They are halophilic and alkaliphilic.
C) They are acidophilic but not halophilic.
D) They are halophilic and acidophilic.
12) Which statement is true? 12) ______
A) Both yeasts and molds are fungi.
B) Both yeasts and molds are degenerate plants.
C) Yeasts are fungi, whereas molds are degenerate plants.
D) Yeasts are degenerate plants, whereas molds are fungi.
13) In a lichen, the __________ is the phototrophic component and the
__________ provides the phototroph with an anchor and with protection
from the elements.
13) ______
A) fungus / alga
B) fungus / cyanobacterium
C) alga or cyanobacterium / fungus
D) alga / cyanobacterium
14) The eukaryotic fruiting body is generally associated with the 14) ______
A) yeast. B) slime mold.
C) trypanosome. D) Paramecium.
15) Early branching Eukarya lack 15) ______
A) genetic material. B) ribosomes.
C) mitochondria. D) nuclei.
16) In relation to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells are generally 16) ______
A) smaller.
B) about the same size.
C) larger.
D) There is no general rule about comparative cell size.
17) Paired chromosomes are found in the 17) ______
A) eukaryotes. B) Archaea.
C) bacteria. D) viruses.
18) Mechanisms for controlling gene expression are found 18) ______
A) only in eukaryotes.
B) only in prokaryotes.
C) in all cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
D) in some but not all prokaryotes and in some but not all eukaryotes.
19) Ribosomal RNA-based studies reveal that 19) ______
A) all eukaryotic organisms are related but that all prokaryotic
organisms are not necessarily related.
B) all organisms are thought to have diverged from a common
ancestral organism or community of organisms.
C) all prokaryotic organisms are related but that all eukaryotic
organisms are not necessarily related.
D) the Archaea are most closely related to the viruses.
20) Which statement is true? 20) ______

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A) Most natural and most synthetic compounds can be broken down
by one or more microorganisms.
B) All synthetic and most natural compounds can be broken down by
one or more microorganisms.
C) All natural and all synthetic compounds can be broken down by
one or more microorganisms.
D) All natural and most synthetic compounds can be broken down by
one or more microorganisms.
21) According to our present understanding, mitochondria and chloroplasts
are probably __________ in origin.
21) ______
A) eukaryotic B) archaeal
C) viral D) bacterial
22) The model organism for microbial physiology, biochemistry, and
molecular biology is
22) ______
A) Candida albicans. B) Azotobacter sp.
C) Pseudomonas aeruginosa. D) Escherichia coli.
23) Which of the following groups of organisms is not gram-positive? 23) ______
A) Clostridium B) Pseudomonas
C) Streptococcus D) Lactobacillus
24) RNA-based phylogenies have impacted many subdisciplines of
microbiology, including
24) ______
A) clinical diagnostics. B) microbial classification.
C) microbial ecology. D) all of the above.
25) What type of energy-yielding metabolism is found only in prokaryotes? 25) ______
A) phototrophy B) chemoorganotrophy
C) autotrophy D) chemolithotrophy
26) In which of the following habitats might an extremophile be isolated? 26) ______
A) boiling hot springs B) garden soil at neutral pH
C) a freshwater pond D) human skin
27) Which organism has unusual cell walls, can reassemble its chromosome
after it has been damaged, and has an innate resistance to high levels of
radiation?
27) ______
A) Lactobacillus B) Chlamydia
C) Deinococcus D) Pseudomonas
28) How was it determined that mitochondria and chloroplasts of
eukaryotes are actually ancestors of specific lineages of Bacteria?
28) ______
A) clinical diagnosis B) molecular sequencing
C) evolutionary studies D) visual inspection
29) The ultimate limit of what we are able to see with a microscope is
dictated by
29) ______
A) light intensity. B) magnification.
C) resolution. D) visual acuity.

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30) The most common type of microscopy for laboratory courses in biology
and microbiology is done with the
30) ______
A) bright-field microscope. B) electron microscope.
C) phase-contrast microscope. D) dark-field microscope.
31) When the oil-immersion lens is used, 31) ______
A) light rays are collected to increase clarity.
B) objects are held in place on the microscope slide.
C) light rays are scattered so unnecessary background material is not
seen.
D) magnification of objects is increased by about tenfold.
32) A tiny stylus positioned so close to a specimen that weak repulsive
forces are established is used in
32) ______
A) dark-field microscopy.
B) atomic force microscopy.
C) confocal scanning laser microscopy.
D) none of the above.
33) The cytoplasmic membrane is the 33) ______
A) source of nutrient production.
B) primary support structure of the cell.
C) structure that identifies a cell as eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
D) permeability barrier of the cell.
34) If the magnification of an ocular lens of a particular microscope is 10×
and the magnification of the objective on the same microscope is 47×, the
total magnification achieved is
34) ______
A) 57×. B) 4.7×. C) 4,700×. D) 470×.
35) Fluorescent microscopy is commonly used in 35) ______
A) cancer therapy.
B) the detection of chemical contaminants in a solution.
C) radiation biology.
D) clinical diagnostic microbiology.
36) Bacteria stain as gram-positive or gram-negative because of differences
in the cell
36) ______
A) nucleus. B) chromosome.
C) wall. D) cytoplasm.
37) What type of microscopy has found widespread use in microbial
ecology because of its ability to resolve the different layered
components of a biofilm?
37) ______
A) dark-field microscopy
B) confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM)
C) differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy
D) scanning electron microscopy
38) Why is the presence of a cell wall significant from a clinical standpoint? 38) ______
A) All types of cells have a cell wall and it makes identification of the
causative agent of disease difficult.

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B) Only gram-negative Bacteria have cell walls.
C) The cell wall protects microorganisms from destruction by the
immune system.
D) Animal cells do not have cell walls, so antibiotics that target cell
walls can destroy invading microorganisms.
TRUE/FALSE. Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.
39) Microorganisms today are probably a degeneration of the earliest life
forms.
39) ______
40) Ribosomes function primarily in energy production. 40) ______
41) Prokaryotic chromosomes are generally linear. 41) ______
42) Meiosis is the process by which haploid gametes are formed. 42) ______
43) Ribosomal RNAs can be used to study phylogenetic relationships
between organisms.
43) ______
44) Endosymbiosis is an explanation for the origin of mitochondria and
chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells.
44) ______
45) Phototrophs use light as an energy source. 45) ______
46) Viruses necessarily cause disease in the organisms they infect. 46) ______
47) Species of Archaea are more closely related to Eukarya than to Bacteria. 47) ______
48) The waste products of chemoorganotrophs are often used for energy by
chemolithotrophs.
48) ______
49) The evolutionary significance of extreme thermophiles may be that they
are modern descendants of very ancient cell lines dating back to a time
when the planet was very warm.
49) ______
50) Organisms of the genus Halobacterium can grow within salt crystals. 50) ______
51) The Picrophilus are the most alkaliphilic prokaryotes known. 51) ______
52) All known Archaea are extremophiles of one sort or another. 52) ______
53) The cyanobacteria were the first oxygenic phototrophs to evolve on
Earth.
53) ______
54) The genus Chlamydia harbors respiratory and sexually transmitted
pathogens of humans.
54) ______
55) A differential stain is called "differential" because it does not stain all
kinds of cells the same color.
55) ______
56) In bright-field microscopy, contrast differences arise because different
cells and cellular components absorb and scatter light in varying
deg
rees
.

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56) ______
57) In phase-contrast microscopy, the differences in refractive indices
between organisms and their environments are utilized for better
viewing of living specimens.
57) ______
58) Light microscopy is an effective way of viewing objects in three
dimensions.
58) ______
SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers
the question.
59) The distinct feature of the planctomyces group is a(n)
__________.
59) _____________
60) To say that an organism is an "obligate intracellular parasite"
means __________.
60) _____________
61) One major difference between chromosomes and plasmids is
that plasmids generally contain __________ rather than
__________ genes.
61) _____________
62) A eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing organism that can live in
environments containing only a few minerals, water, carbon
dioxide, and light is a(n) __________.
62) _____________
63) Two major roles of fungi are __________ and __________. 63) _____________
64) The total number of genes within a cell is called the __________. 64) _____________
65) The evolutionary relationships between organisms are studied
in the science of __________.
65) _____________
66) The three options by which an organism may obtain energy are:
__________, __________, and __________.
66) _____________
67) The difference between chemoorganotrophy and
chemolithotrophy is __________.
67) _____________
68) A cell that uses carbon dioxide as its carbon source is
a(n)__________.
68) _____________
69) The largest division (or phylum) of Bacteria is the __________. 69) _____________
70) The unique feature of the mycoplasmas is the __________. 70) _____________
71) The function of the chloroplast is to __________. 71) _____________
72) Lichens are called mutualistic organisms because __________. 72) _____________
73) The commonality linking the Aquifex and Thermotoga species is
__________.
73) _____________

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