Understanding Human Anatomy Cells, Tissues, and Or

Name: Understanding Human Anatomy Cells, Tissues, and Or
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Author: Mason Bennett

Learn levels of biological hierarchy, cell structures, tissue types, organ systems, and cell division (Mitosis phases). Perfect for TEAS, nursing, or medical prep.

Mason Bennett

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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body.
Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules.
± Cytology: study of cells.
± Histology: study of tissues.
Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures.
*Smallest living is a CELL.
*Smallest organisms is a ATOM.
Levels of Hierarchy
Atom- the most basic complete uni: of an element.
Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell.
Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual
cell.
Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower
level than organs.
Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two
or more similar tissues.
Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body: circulatory,
integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic,
muscular and nervous.
± Humans have 11 Organ Systems.
Cells Structure
• Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin
• Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins "amino acids".
• Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell.
• Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal.
• Cyto skeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape support cell.
• Microtubules- part of the cyto skeletal.
• Cytosol -liquid material in cell.

* Cell mem brane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to
enter and exit cell.
* EndopJasmicyReticuluin- smooth or rough transport system of the cell.
* Mitochondria - generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular
respiration
Animal Cells
Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis.
Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division.
Lysosomes- the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or
break down the cell when it dies.
Cilia- cause cell to move.
Flagella- whip tail to move cell.
TISSUES:
_ Group of CELLS.
-* Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial. Connective.
1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin
2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty') Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat,
Blood. Lymph.
= It protects and binds body parts.
a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support
_ Fibrous
b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and defends
against disease.
c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells
3. Muscle: supports and move body
± Smooth
± C ardiac
_ Skeletal
4. Nervous: Example. Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
± Neurons: control responses to changes in environment.
Mitosis - it has 4 phases. Pink MAT / Prophase. Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Interphase - Cell prepares for division by replicating genetic cytoplasmic material.
Prophase - Chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to
disintegrate. Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of cell and spindle fibers form.

Metaphase - Spindle moves to center of cell and chromosome pairs align along center of spindle
structure.
Anaphase - Chromosome pairs pull apart into daughter chromosomes.
Telophase - Spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane reforms or is pinched.
Cytokinesis - Physical splitting of cell.
Meiosis- same as mitosis except happens tivice, results in four daughter cell s instead of two.
Mature haploid male and female germ cell uniting in sexual reproduction.
± Gametes in female = Egg
= Gametes in Male = Sperm
= Meiosis is when gametes produce a zygote.
Zygote: controls cell differentiation. It forms during fertilization. The cells from each parent that
combine to form a zygote are called gametes. Zygote is the first stage of reproduction.
L Respiratory System
« main functions are the critical tasks of transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the
body's cell and moving carbon dioxide in the other direction.
Nasal Cavity - air passage that warms, moistens, and filters air. and also contains olfactory
receptors. Medially divided by the nasal septum.
External Nares - the visible 'nostrils' that are the entrances into the nasal cavity
The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual
cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice
production.
Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the lannx during swallowing, ensuring
food only enters the esophagus.
Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also
contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation.
Alveoli - the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.
• T yPe 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface
tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse.
Bronchi - the main passageways directly attached to the lungs.

Bronchioles- small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique
fissure respectively.
Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch
- an indentation for the heart’s apex.
The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction
during lung ventilation movement.
• Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface.
• Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the
internal surface of the thoracic body wall.
• Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled uith serous
fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together.
Perfusion - The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue.
Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions
of pressures in and around the body.
• Ins piration - the movement of air into the lungs.
• Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs.
Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing.
Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal.
Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal.
Residua] volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse.
Medulla Oblongata- the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem
control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH.
Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
Cystic Fibrosis - A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by
difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.

2. Cardiovascular Sv stem
Heart
• Location- in the mediastinum of thoracic cavity.
• Function- generates pressure to pump blood through circulator}’ system
• Orientation flat base is directed toward higher right shoulder, and pointed apex
points to left hip.
Heart Coverings
* Pericardium- the two-layered membranous sac in which the heart sits.
Heart Layers
• Epicardium- the epithelium clinging to the outer heart wall (is visceral pericardium.
* Myocardium- the middle layer composed of cardiac muscles tissue and connective tissue
forming the fibrous skeleton.
• Endocardium- the epithelium clinging to the inner surfaces of the heart chambers.
4 chambers: 2 Atria, 2 Ventricles
Atria- the superior chambers, ear like extensions of the atria, receiving chambers limited
pumping means thin walls.
Ventricles- the inferior chambers, majority of heart volume, pumping chambers thick walls.
Sulci - the indentations on the outer heart surface, correspond between chambers contains fats
and vessels.
Septa- the internal walls that divide the chambers.
Right Atrium
• Superior Vena Cava- blood returning from above the diaphragm.
• Inferior Vena Cava - blood returning from below the diaphragm.
• Coronary Sinus- blood returning from the heart wall.
Left Atrium
• 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs.
Right Ventricle
• Receives blood from the right atrium.

Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs.
Left Ventricle
• Receives blood from the left atrium
• Blood exits into the aorta to the body.
**Blood only pass through % of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart
twice to complete circulation.
Pulmonary Circuit
• _The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back.
• Is pumped by the right half of the heart
• Blood leaves -02 and returns +02
Systemic Circuit
• The pathway from the heart to the body's tissues and back
• Is pumped by the left half of the heart
• Blood leaves +02 and returns -02
CIRCULATION
Superior & Inferior Vena Cava — ± Right Atrium-± Tricuspid Valve-± Right Ventricle — ±
Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve—± Pulmonary Trunk --= Lungs-= Heart-= Four Pulmonary
Veins— ± Left Atrium — = Mitral Valve--= Left Ventricle-= Aortic Semilunar Valve--± Aorta
Coronary7 Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and
beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium.
Atrioventricular Valves
• Separate an atrium from a ventricle.
• Prevent backflow into the atrium
Tricuspid Valve - separates right atrium from right ventricle
Bicuspid Valve - separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve.
Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the "pacemaker" whose cells generate the sinus rhythm.
Heart Sounds- the "lub" and "dub"
• Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves, (mitral and tricuspid
valves)
• Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves.

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Systole- the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood "contraction"
Diastole- The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood "relaxation'
Cardiac Cells
• Large amount of mitochondria for endurance
• Generate electrical impulses.
• Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison.
Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood ban the heart to other parts of the bod}-.
Veins- blood vessels that cany blood towards the heart
Blood
• Connective tissue
• pH-7.35-7.45
• Volume- 4-6L
Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH. body temp and
water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection.
Plasma - liquid component of blood composed of water, plasma proteins and non-protein
solutes.
Erythrocytes- red blood cells lack nucleus, functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.
Leukocytes- white blood cells
Thrombocytes- platelets
Hemoglobin- protein composing 97% of RBC volume.
• Globin- amino acid based portion with 2 alpha chains. 2 beta chains
• Heme- pigment portion with a centra] iron atom. 4 (one per globin chain)
Hematopoiesis - blood cell formation occurs in the bone marrow.
Leukocytes- white blood cells, possess nuclei and organelles, function is to provide immune
responses.
T-cells - target vitally infected cells.
B-cells- make antibodies.

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Lymphatic System - Series of vessels, tissues and organs performing 2 major functions:
• Vessels return to the blood any fluids and proteins that leaked into tissues.
• Tissues and organs house cells for immune functioning.
Lymphatic vessels - the series of vessels draining lymph, returning it to the blood in a
unidirectional flow.
Lymphoid cells
• Lymphocytes - the T cells and B cells that fight disease-causing pathogens.
• Plasma cells - specialized B cells that produce antibodies.
• Macrophages - phagocytize any foreign cells or debris.
• Dendritic cells - specialized phagocytes with cellular projections.
• Reticular cells - produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the
lymphoid cells.
Lymph - the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels.
Lacteals - specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high
in fat content, called chyle.
Lymph nodes - the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels,
and clustered in the inguinal, axillary. and cervical regions
• Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes
• Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes
3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System)
Structures of the Digestive Tract:
• Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform
various digestive functions
• Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion
Functions of the Digestive System:
• Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth.
• Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal.
• Peristalsis - waves of muscle contraction that propel food.
• Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
• Segmentation - contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food.
• Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes.
• Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the
blood or lymph.
• Defecation - removal of indigestible materials through the anus.

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Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion
via chewing (mastication) and chemical digestion via enzymes.
• Teerh - bony structures used in mastication.
• Tongue - skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus.
• Palate - roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions.
• Uvula - extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing.
Salivary glands - paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and
cleanse the oral cavity.
Saliva - secretion containing sm'n-aj’y amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also
contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens.
Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus,
performing the act of deglutition (swallowing)
• Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food
Deglutition - when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory
passages ensuring food enters the esophagus.
Stomach - stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion
via enzymes.
Chyme - the acidic, paste- like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours.
Regions: The cardia is nearest to the esophagus, the fundus is the superior dome, the body is
the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine
Gastric ulcers - erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium.
Pyloric sphincter - circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine.
Gastric pits/glands - invaginations of the stomach mucosa containing cells that produce the
gastric juices.
• Chief cells - secrete pepsinogen that quickly becomes pepsin, a protein enzyme that
works best in acidic pH.
• Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid (HCL), to produce acidic environment.
• Mucous neck cells - produce mucus that with the mucous of goblet cells protects the
mucosa.
• Enteroendocrine cells - secrete local hormones to regulate stomach activity.

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Small intestine - coiled digestive organ transporting food from stomach to large intestine.
Completes digestion and performs all nutrient absorption. Receives secretions form liver, gall
bladder, and pancreas.
Regions - divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi) - regulates the entrance of secretions from the liver, gall
bladder and pancreas into the duodenum.
Specia lizations for absorption:
* Villi- finger-like projections of foe mucosa that increase surface area of the epithelium.
Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal for nutrient absorption.
* Intestinal crypts - invaginations producing intestinal juices, a mucous secretion.
* Microvilli - finger-like extensions of foe epithelial cell membranes with attached "brush
border enzymes." further increasing surface area.
Liver - a 4-lobed gland whose digestive function is the production of bile.
Bile - a green, alkaline fluid containing bilirubin pigment and bile salts that perform
emulsification of fats. Drains from the liver via the hepatic ducts.
Emulsification - the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus
increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion.
Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of foe liver that stores and concentrates
bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct.
The Pancreas - gland whose acinar ceils produces pancreatic juices containing digestive
enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases.
Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from foe small intestine to the anus while absorbing
water and forming feces.
Deo cecal valve - regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine.
Hanstra - individual pouches of the large intestine wall.
Teniae coli - thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra.
Regions :
’ Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix.

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* Ascending colon - transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the
hepatic flexure.
* I ransverse colon - transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure.
■ Descending colon - transports food down the left side of the abdomen.
■ Sigmoid colon - s-shaped region.
Rectum - most distal region of the colon. w7
here feces is stored until defecation.
Recta] valves - projections that allow gases to pass around feces.
Anus - end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs.
Internal anal sphincter - smooth muscle regulating ana] opening.
Eiternal anal sphincter - skeletal muscle regulating anal opening.
4. Neuromuscular System (Nervous System)
Skeletal Muscle j-iber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many
mitochondria.
Sarcolemma- the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath.
Sarcoplasm-the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber.
Give osomes -compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity.
Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated
appearance.
Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins.
Thin F:ilaments-composed of actin and other proteins.
NMJ- where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber.
Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to
trigger muscle contraction.
Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ's to trigger contractions, released from
neuron and crosses synaptic cleft.
Afferent Nerves- sensory nerves that send message to the CNS

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Efferent Nen es - motor nerves that send message to muscles.
ANS- autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions including cardiac and smooth
muscle, heart, digestion and breathing.
Axon- a nerve fiber.
Contraction- elongating or shortening of muscle to perform muscle actions.
Nerve- a bundle of axons that transmit electrical impulses to peripheral organs.
Synapse- the structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons.
5. Reproductive System
Male Reproductive
Testes- ±e primary sex organs, producing spenn and sex hormones.
• Sustain developing spenn, and produce proteins used in sperm production.
Scrotum- the sac of skin that contains the testes.
• Provides ideal temp for sperm
• Darios Muscle- contracts to fold scrotum wall.
• Cremaster Muscle-contracts to elevate testes.
Prostate & Seminal Vesicles- produce the fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing
spenn.
Penis- the male copulatory system.
Testosterone- the hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics.
The Duct System
• Epididymis - coiled tubules clinging to the testes where sperm mature and gain their
ability to swim.
• Vas deferens - tubule that transports sperm from the epididymis to the prostate gland.
• Urethra- passage that transports semen and urine.
Female Reproductive
Ovaries- primary sex organ, producing eggs and sex hormones. Estrogen is produced in ovaries.
Fallopian tubes- transports an egg from and ovary to uterus
Fimbriae- finger- like projections at the opening of the fallopian tube that sweep eggs in.

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Understanding Human Anatomy Cells, Tissues, and Or

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