Genetics: A Conceptual Approach, 5th Edition Solution Manual

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Genetics: A Conceptual Approach, 5th Edition Solution Manual is your guide to textbook mastery, offering detailed solutions to every chapter's exercises.

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Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Section 1.1
*1. How did Hopi culture contribute to the high incidence of albinism among members of the
Hopi tribe?
Solution:
In Hopi culture, albino individuals were considered special and awarded special status in
the village. Hopi male albinos were not required to work the fields, thus avoiding extensive
exposure to sunlight that could prove damaging or deadly. Because the male albinos
remained in the village during the day, they had mating advantages over the males who
participated in farming and other duties outside of the village. Albinism was considered to
be a positive trait reflecting the purity of the villagers. Finally, the small population size of
the Hopi tribe may have helped increase the allele frequency of the albino gene due to
chance.
2. Outline some of the ways in which genetics is important to all of us.
Solution:
Genetics directly influences our lives and is fundamental to what and who we are. For
example, genes affect our appearance (e.g., eye color, height, weight, skin pigmentation,
and hair color). Our susceptibility to diseases and disorders is affected by our genetic
makeup. Genetics plays a significant role in researching and developing techniques to
diagnose and treat these hereditary diseases. Genes may also influence our intelligence and
personality. Genetic techniques have enabled scientists to develop genetically modified
crops that are resistant to pesticides and herbicides or that have enhanced nutritional
properties making it possible to produce larger quantities of food for the world’s growing
population. Lastly, genetic engineering has made it possible to mass produce
pharmaceuticals and other substances of commercial value.
3. Give at least three examples of the role of genetics in society today.
Solution:
Genetics plays important roles in the diagnosis and treatment of hereditary diseases: in
breeding plants and animals for improved production and disease resistance; and in
producing pharmaceuticals and novel crops through genetic engineering.
4. Briefly explain why genetics is crucial to modern biology.

2 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
Solution:
Genetics is crucial to modern biology in that it provides unifying principles: The genetic
code is universal, meaning that all organisms use nucleic acid as their genetic material, and
all organisms encode genetic information in the same manner. The study of many other
biological disciplines, such as developmental biology, ecology, and evolutionary biology,
is supported by genetics.
5. List the three traditional subdisciplines of genetics and summarize what each covers.
Solution:
1) Transmission (classical) genetics is concerned with the inheritance of genes from one
generation to the next. It also deals with the location of genes on chromosomes and gene-
mapping. 2) Molecular genetics focuses on the structure, organization, and function of
genes at the molecular level. Molecular genetics is also concerned with the processes by
which genetic information is transferred and expressed. 3) Population genetics studies
genetic variation and changes in genes and allele frequencies within groups of individuals
of the same species over time.
6. What are some characteristics of model genetic organisms that make them useful for
genetic studies?
Solution:
Model genetic organisms have relatively short generation times, produce numerous
progeny, are amenable to laboratory manipulations, and can be maintained and propagated
inexpensively.
Section 1.2
7. When and where did agriculture first arise? What role did genetics play in the development
of the first domesticated plants and animals?
Solution:
Agriculture first arose 10,000 to 12,000 years ago in the area now referred to as the Middle
East (i.e., Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, and Israel). Early farmers selectively bred
individual wild plants or animals that had useful characteristics with others that had similar
useful traits. The farmers then selected for offspring that contained those useful features.
Early farmers did not completely understand genetics, but they clearly understood that
breeding individual plants or animals with desirable traits would lead to offspring that
contained these same traits. This selective breeding led to the development of domesticated
plants and animals.
8. Outline the notion of pangenesis and explain how it differs from the germ-plasm theory.

Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 3
Solution:
Pangenesis theorizes that information for creating each part of the offspring’s body
originates from each respective part of the parent’s body and is passed through the
reproductive organs to the embryo at conception. Pangenesis suggests that changes in parts
of the parent’s body may be passed to the offspring’s body. The germ-plasm theory, in
contrast, states that the reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) possess all of the information
required to make the complete body; the rest of the body contributes no information to the
next generation.
9. What does the concept of the inheritance of acquired characteristics propose and how is it
related to the notion of pangenesis?
Solution:
The theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics postulates that traits acquired during
one’s lifetime can be transmitted to offspring. It developed from pangenesis, which
postulates that information from all parts of one’s body is transmitted to the next
generation. Thus, according to the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, the
development of large bicep muscles through exercise would produce children with large
biceps.
10. What is preformationism? What did it have to say about how traits are inherited?
Solution:
Preformationism is the theory that the offspring results from a miniature adult that is
already preformed in the sperm or the egg. All traits would thus be inherited from only one
parent, either the father or the mother, depending on whether the homunculus (the
preformed miniature adult) resided in the sperm or the egg.
11. Define blending inheritance and contrast it with preformationism.
Solution:
The theory of blending inheritance proposes that the egg and sperm from two parents
contains material that blends upon conception, influencing the development of the
offspring. This theory indicates that the offspring is an equal blend of the two parents. In
preformationism, the offspring inherits all of its traits from one parent.
12. How did developments in botany in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries contribute to
the rise of modern genetics?
Solution:
Botanists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries discovered that plants reproduce
sexually, enabling them to develop new techniques for crossing plants and creating plant
hybrids. These early experiments provided essential background work for Mendel’s plant
crosses. Mendel’s work laid the foundation for the study of modern genetics.
13. List some advances in genetics made in the twentieth century.

4 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
Solution:
1902 Proposal that genes are located on chromosomes by Walter Sutton
1910 Discovery of the first genetic mutation in a fruit fly by Thomas Hunt Morgan
1930 The foundation of population genetics by Ronald A. Fisher, John B. S. Haldane,
and Sewall Wright
1940s The use of viral and bacterial genetic systems
1953 Three-dimensional structure of DNA described by Watson and Crick
1966 Deciphering of the genetic code
1973 Recombinant DNA experiments
1977 Chemical and enzymatic methods for DNA sequencing developed by
Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger
1986 PCR developed by Kary Mullis
1990 Gene therapy
14. Briefly explain the contribution that each of the following persons made to the study of
genetics.
Solution:
a. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
Proposed the concept of the cell theory, which indicated that the cell is the fundamental
unit of living organisms. Caused biologists interested in heredity to examine cell
reproduction.
b. August Weismann
Proposed the germ-plasm theory, which holds that cells in reproductive organs carry a
complete set of genetic information.
c. Gregor Mendel
First discovered the basic rules of inheritance.
d. James Watson and Francis Crick
Along with Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, described the three-dimensional
structure of DNA.
e. Kary Mullis
Developed the polymerase chain reaction, used to quickly amplify small amounts of DNA.
Section 1.3
15. What are the two basic cell types (from a structural perspective) and how do they differ?
Solution:
The two basic cell types are prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have neither
membrane-bound organelles nor a true nucleus. Their chromosomes are found within the
cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells possess a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles such as an endomembrane system and mitochondria.
16. Outline the relations between genes, DNA, and chromosomes.

Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 5
Solution:
A gene is a particular DNA nucleotide sequence that encodes an individual trait. Genes are
located at specific positions on chromosomes.
APPLICATION QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
Section 1.1
*17. What is the relation between genetics and evolution?
Solution:
In essence, evolution is change in the genetic composition of a population over generations.
Mutations generate new genetic variants, recombination generates new combinations of
genetic variants, and natural selection or other evolutionary processes cause a change in the
proportions of specific genetic variants in the population.
*18. For each of the following genetic topics, indicate whether it focuses on transmission
genetics, molecular genetics, or population genetics.
a. Analysis of pedigrees to determine the probability of someone inheriting a trait
Solution:
Transmission genetics
b. Study of people on a small island to determine why a genetic form of asthma is
prevalent on the island
Solution:
Population genetics
c. Effect of nonrandom mating on the distribution of genotypes among a group of
animals
Solution:
Population genetics
d. Examination of the nucleotide sequences found at the ends of chromosomes
Solution:
Molecular genetics
e. Mechanisms that ensure a high degree of accuracy in DNA replication

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6 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
Solution:
Molecular genetics
f. Study of how the inheritance of traits encoded by genes on sex chromosomes (sex-
linked traits) differs from the inheritance of traits encoded by genes on nonsex
chromosomes (autosomal traits)
Solution:
Transmission genetics
19. Describe some of the ways in which your own genetic makeup affects you as a person. Be
as specific as you can.
Solution:
Answers will vary but should include observations similar to those in the following
example: Genes affect my physical appearance; for example, they probably have largely
determined the fact that I have brown hair and brown eyes. Undoubtedly, genes have
affected my height of five feet, seven inches, which is quite close to the height of my father
and mother, and my slim build. My dark complexion mirrors the skin color of my mother. I
have inherited susceptibilities to certain diseases and disorders that tend to run in my
family; these include asthma, a slight tremor of the hand, and vertigo.
20. Describe at least one trait that appears to run in your family (appears in multiple members
of the family). Does this trait run in your family because it is an inherited trait or because it
is caused by environmental factors that are common to family members? How might you
distinguish between these possibilities?
Solution:
Answers will vary but should include observations similar to those in the following
example: My two brothers and I share two traits: we are all three taciturn (we don’t speak
much) and smart (just don’t ask my teenage daughter). Although the literature provides
evidence for a genetic component for intelligence, I’m not aware of any studies on the
heritability of being taciturn. If I were to investigate to what extent these traits are
determined by the environment or by heredity, I would look at studies of twins who had
been separated at birth and lived in different environments to adulthood. Such studies
would separate environmental factors from genetic factors, whereas studies of family
members reared in the same household are confounded by the fact that the family members
experienced similar environments. If the trait had a strong genetic component, we would
expect identical twins reared apart to be similarly taciturn or similarly intelligent. One
would have to devise some objective measure of these traits—degrees of being taciturn or
smart.
Section 1.2
*21. Genetics is said to be both a very old science and a very young science. Explain what is
meant by this statement.

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Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 7
Solution:
Genetics is old in the sense that humans have been aware of hereditary principles for
thousands of years and have applied them since the beginning of agriculture and the
domestication of plants and animals. It is very young in the sense that the fundamental
principles were not uncovered until Mendel’s time, and the discovery of the structure of
DNA and the principles of recombinant DNA have occurred within the last 60 years.
*22. Match the description (a through d) with the correct theory or concept listed below.
Preformationism
Pangenesis
Germ-plasm theory
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
a. Each reproductive cell contains a complete set of genetic information.
Solution:
Germ-plasm theory
b. All traits are inherited from one parent.
Solution:
Preformationism
c. Genetic information may be altered by use of a characteristic.
Solution:
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
d. Cells of different tissues contain different genetic information.
Solution:
Pangenesis
*23. Compare and contrast the following ideas about inheritance.
a. Pangenesis and germ-plasm theory
Solution:
Pangenesis theorizes that units of genetic information (pangenes) from all parts of the
body are carried through the reproductive organs to the embryo where each unit
directs the formation of its own specific part of the body. According to the germ-
plasm theory, the germ-line tissue or gamete producing cells found within the
reproductive organs contain the complete set of genetic information that is passed to

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8 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
the gametes. Both theories are similar in that each predicts the passage of genetic
information occurs through the reproductive organs.
b. Preformationism and blending inheritance
Solution:
Preformationism predicts that the sperm or egg contains a miniature preformed adult
called the homunculus. During development, the homunculus would grow to produce
the offspring. Only one parent would contribute genetic traits to the offspring.
Blending inheritance requires contributions of genetic material from both parents.
According to the theory of blending inheritance, genetic contributions from the
parents blend to produce the genetic material of the offspring. Once blended, the
genetic material could not be separated for future generations.
c. The inheritance of acquired characteristics and our modern theory of heredity
Solution:
The theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics postulates that traits acquired
during one’s lifetime alter the genetic material and can be transmitted to offspring.
Our modern theory of heredity indicates that offspring inherit genes located on
chromosomes from their parents. These chromosomes segregate during meiosis in the
germ cells and are passed into the gametes.
Section 1.3
*24. Compare and contrast the following terms:
a. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Solution:
Both cell types have lipid bilayer membranes, DNA genomes, and machinery for
DNA replication, transcription, translation, energy metabolism, response to stimuli,
growth, and reproduction. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus containing chromosomal
DNA and possess internal membrane-bound organelles.
b. Gene and allele
Solution:
A gene is the basic unit of heredity, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence,
and typically encodes a functional RNA or polypeptide. An allele is a variant form of
a gene, arising through mutation.
c. Genotype and phenotype

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Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 9
Solution:
The genotype is the set of genes or alleles an organism has inherited from its
parent(s). The expression of the genes of a particular genotype, through interaction
with environmental factors, produces the phenotype, the observable trait.
d. DNA and RNA
Solution:
Both are nucleic acid polymers. RNA contains ribose, whereas DNA contains
deoxyribose. RNA also contains uracil as one of the four bases, whereas DNA
contains thymine. The other three bases are common to both DNA and RNA.
Finally, DNA is usually double-stranded, consisting of two complementary strands
and very little secondary structure, whereas RNA is single-stranded with regions of
internal base-pairing to form complex secondary structures.
e. DNA and chromosome
Solution:
Chromosomes are structures formed of DNA and associated proteins. The
nucleotide sequence of the DNA contains the genetic information.
CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
*25. The type of albinism that arises with high frequency among Hopi Native Americans
(discussed in the introduction to this chapter) is most likely oculocutaneous albinism type
II, due to a defect in the OCA2 gene on chromosome 15. Do some research on the Internet
to determine how the phenotype of this type of albinism differs from phenotypes of other
forms of albinism in humans and the mutated genes that result in these phenotypes. Hint:
Visit the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man Web site
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/) and search the database for albinism.
Solution:
Type of albinism Phenotype Gene mutated
OCA2 Pigment reduced in skin, hair, and eyes, but
small amount of pigment acquired with age;
visual problems
OCA2
OCA1B General absence of pigment in hair, skin, and
eyes, but may be small amount of pigment;
does not vary with age; visual problems
Tyrosinase
OCA1A Complete absence of pigment; visual problems Tyrosinase
OCA3 Some pigment present, but sun sensitivity and
visual problems
Tyrosinase-related
protein 1
OASD Lack of pigment in the eyes and deafness later
in life
Unknown
OA1 Lack of pigment in the eyes but normal
elsewhere
GPR143 gene, G
protein-coupled

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10 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
receptor
ROCA Bright copper red coloration in skin and hair of
Africans; dilution of color in iris
Tyrosinase-related
protein 1
OCA4 Reduced pigmentation MATP gene,
membrane-
associated
transporter
protein.
Section 1.1
26. We now know a great deal about the genetics of humans, and humans are the focus of
many genetic studies. Should humans be considered a model genetic organism? Why or
why not?
Solution:
Humans are intensively interested in how humans function biologically. Because of this
intense interest, we know more about human anatomy, physiology, genetics, and
biochemistry than we know about many other organisms. Many human diseases and
disorders are associated with human genes. Understanding how to treat and diagnose these
diseases and disorders requires intensive studies to identify the gene(s) responsible for the
disorder as well as understanding how they are inherited and expressed. Recent advances
in the understanding of genetic risk factors associated with diseases such as heart disease
and cancer have enabled the development of predictive genetic tests for some of these
disorders. These successes continue to stimulate a focus in identifying genetic risk factors
for other diseases. The ability of families to keep careful records about members
extending back many generations has facilitated the study of human inheritance aiding the
ability of researchers to identify genetic markers within families. In addition, these detailed
records have provided some humans who are intensely interested in their own heredity the
ability to trace their ancestry.
Section 1.3
*27. Suppose that life exists elsewhere in the universe. All life must contain some type of
genetic information, but alien genomes might not consist of nucleic acids and have the
same features as those found in the genomes of life on Earth. What might be the common
features of all genomes, no matter where they exist?
Solution:
All genomes must have the ability to store complex information, the capacity to vary and
yet be transmissible in large part faithfully to subsequent generations. The blueprint for the
entire organism must be contained within the genome of each reproductive cell. The
information has to be in the form of a code that can be used as a set of instructions for
assembling the components of the cells. The genetic material of any organism must be
stable, be replicated precisely, and be transmitted faithfully to the progeny, but must be
capable of mutating.

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Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 11
28. Choose one of the ethical or social issues in parts a through e and give your opinion on the
issue. For background information, you might read one of the articles on ethics marked
with an asterisk in the Suggested Readings section for Chapter 1 at
http://courses.bfwpub.com/pierce5e.
a. Should a person’s genetic makeup be used in determining his or her eligibility for life
insurance?
Solution:
Arguments pro: Genetic susceptibility to certain types of diseases or conditions is
relevant information regarding consequences of exposure to certain occupational
hazards. Genes that will result in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Huntington
disease, Alzheimer disease, or breast cancer, could logically be considered preexisting
conditions. Insurance companies have a right, and arguably a duty to their customers,
to exclude people with genetic preconditions so that insurance rates can be lowered
for the general population.
Arguments con: The whole idea of insurance is to spread the risk and pool assets.
Excluding people based on their genetic makeup would deny insurance to people who
need it most. Indeed, as information about various genetic risks accumulates, more
people would become excluded until only a small fraction of the population is
insurable. Further, many genes are incompletely penetrant and variably expressed.
Not all women who have mutant BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes develop breast cancer. And
some women who have breast cancer lack mutations in those genes.
b. Should biotechnology companies be able to patent newly sequenced genes?
Solution:
Pro: Patenting genes provides companies with protection for their investment in
research and development of new drugs and therapies. Without such patent protection,
companies would have less incentive to expend large amounts of money in genetic
research and thus would slow the pace of advancement of medical research. Such a
result would be detrimental to everyone.
Con: Patents on human genes would be like allowing companies to patent a human
arm. Genes are integral parts of our selves, so how can a company patent something
that every human has?
c. Should gene therapy be used on people?
Solution:
Pro: Gene therapy can be used to cure previously incurable or intractable genetic
disorders and to relieve the suffering of millions of people.
Con: Gene therapy may lead to genetic engineering of people for unsavory ends. Who
determines what is a genetic defect? Is short stature a genetic defect? Should genetic
testing be made available for inherited conditions for which there is no treatment or
cure?

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12 Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics
d. Should genetic testing be made available for inherited disorders for which there is no
treatment or cure?
Solution:
Pro: Information will provide relief from unnecessary anxiety (if the test is negative).
Even if the test result is positive for a genetic disorder, it provides the individual, the
family, and friends with information and time to prepare. Information about one’s
own genetic makeup is a right; every person should be able to make his or her own
choice as to whether he or she wants this information.
Con: If there is no treatment or cure, a positive test result can have no good
consequences. It’s like receiving a death sentence or sentence of extended
punishment. It will only engender feelings of hopelessness and depression and may
cause some people to terminate their own lives prematurely.
29. A 45-year old woman undergoes genetic testing and discovers that she is at high risk
for developing colon cancer and Alzheimer disease. Because her children have 50%
of her genes, they also may be at an increased risk for these diseases. Does she have a
moral or legal obligation to tell her children and other close relatives about the results
of her genetic testing?
Solution:
Legally, she is not required to inform her children or other relatives about her test
results, but people may have different opinions about her moral and parental
responsibilities. On the one hand, she has the legal right to keep private the results of
any medical information, including the results of genetic testing. On the other hand,
her children may be at increased risk of developing these disorders and might benefit
from that knowledge. For example, the risk of colon cancer can be reduced by regular
exams, so that any tumors can be detected and removed before they become
cancerous. Some people might argue that her parental responsibilities include
providing her children with information about possible medical problems. Another
issue to consider is the possibility that her children or other relatives might not want
to know their genetic risk, particularly for a disorder like Alzheimer for which there is
no cure.
30. Suppose that you could undergo genetic testing at age 18 for susceptibility to a
genetic disease that would not appear until middle age and has no available treatment.
a. What would be some of the possible reasons for having such a genetic test and some
of the possible reasons for not having the test?
Solution:
Having the genetic test removes doubt about the potential for the disorder—either you
are susceptible or not. By knowing about the potential of a genetic disorder lifestyle
changes could possibly be made to lessen the impact of the disease or lessen the risk.
The types and nature of future medical tests could be positively impacted by the

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Chapter One: Introduction to Genetics 13
genetic testing, thus allowing for early warning and screening for the disease. The
knowledge could also have impact on future family plans and allow for informed
decisions regarding future offspring and the potential of passing the trait to your
offspring. Also by knowing the future, one could plan one’s life accordingly.
Reasons for not having the test typically revolve around the potential for testing
positive for the susceptibility to the genetic disease. If the susceptibility was detected,
the potential for discrimination could exist. For example, your employer (or possibly
future employer) might see you as a long-term liability, thus affecting employment
options. Insurance companies may not want to insure you for that condition or
symptoms of the disorder, and potentially social stigmatism associated with the
disease could be a factor. Knowledge of the potential future condition could lead to
psychological difficulties in coping with the anxiety of waiting for the disease to
manifest.
b. Would you personally want to be tested? Explain your reasoning.
Solution:
There is no “correct” answer, but for me, yes, I would personally want to be tested.
The test would remove doubt about the susceptibility particularly if the genetic
disease had been demonstrated to occur in my family. Either a positive or negative
result would allow for informed planning of lifestyle, medical testing, and family
choices in the future.

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Chapter Two: Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Section 2.1
1. What are some genetic differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Solution:
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
No nucleus
No paired chromosomes (haploid)
Typically single circular chromosome
containing a single origin of replication
Single chromosome is replicated with each
copy moving to opposite sides of the cell
No histone proteins bound to DNA
Nucleus present
Paired chromosomes common (diploid)
Typically multiple linear chromosomes
containing centromeres, telomeres, and
multiple origins of replication
Chromosomes are replicated and segregate
during mitosis or meiosis to the proper
location
Histone proteins are bound to DNA
2. Why are the viruses that infect mammalian cells useful for studying the genetics of
mammals?
Solution:
It is thought that viruses must have evolved after their host cells because a host is
required for viral reproduction. Viral genomes are closely related to their host genomes.
The close relationship between a mammalian virus and its mammalian cell host, along
with the simpler structure of the viral particle, makes it useful in studying the genetics of
mammals. The viral genome will have a similar structure to the mammalian cell host,
but because it has fewer genes, it will be easier to decipher the interactions and
regulation of the viral genes.
Section 2.2
3. List three fundamental events that must take place in cell reproduction.
Solution:
(1) A cell’s genetic information must be copied.
(2) The copies of the genetic information must be separated from one another.
(3) The cell must divide into two daughter cells.
4. Outline the process by which prokaryotic cells reproduce.

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Chapter Two: Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction 15
Solution:
(1) Replication of the circular chromosome takes place.
(2) The two replicated chromosomal copies attach to the plasma membrane.
(3) The plasma membrane grows, which results in the separation of the two
chromosomes.
(4) A new cell wall is formed between the two chromosomes, producing two cells, each
with its own chromosome.
5. Name three essential structural elements of a functional eukaryotic chromosome and
describe their functions.
Solution:
(1) Centromere: serves as the point of attachment for the kinetochore to which spindle
fibers (microtubules) attach
(2) Telomeres, or the natural ends of the linear eukaryotic chromosome: serve to
stabilize the ends of the chromosome; may have a role in limiting cell division
(3) Origins of replication: serve as the starting place for DNA synthesis
6. Sketch and identify four different types of chromosomes based on the position of the
centromere.
Solution:
metacentric submetacentric acrocentric telocentric
7. List the stages of interphase and the major events that take place in each stage.
Solution:
Three predominant stages are found in interphase of cells active in the cell cycle.
(1) G1 (Gap 1): In this phase, the cell grows and synthesizes proteins necessary for cell
division. During G1, the G1/S checkpoint takes place. Once the cell has passed this
checkpoint, it is committed to divide.
(2) S phase: During S phase, DNA replication takes place.
(3) G2 (Gap 2): In G2, additional biochemical reactions take place that prepare the cell
for mitosis. A major checkpoint in G2 is the G2/M checkpoint. Once the cell has
passed this checkpoint, it enters into mitosis.
A fourth stage is frequently found in cells prior to the G1/S checkpoint. Cells may exit
the active cell cycle and enter into a nondividing stage called G0.
8. What are checkpoints? List some of the important checkpoints in the cell cycle.

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